What is motivation, definition, characteristics of types

What is motive

Motive
is a process that controls human behavior, contributing to its organization, direction, activity and stability. It is also believed that a motive is a certain generalized image of material or ideal objects that are valuable to an individual.

Achieving these objects is the meaning of his activity for him. To a person, a motive is presented in the form of special experiences that can be both positive (when expecting to achieve these objects) and negative (when realizing the incompleteness of one’s position, the lack of this object). Schopenhauer was the first to use the concept of “motivation” in psychology.

Nowadays, the word “motivation” in psychology is understood in different ways. Some researchers believe that this is a set of processes responsible for motivation and activity; while others believe that it is a purely mental phenomenon, representing a collection of motives.

What is motivation in psychology in essence? This concept is used where they talk about achieving a certain goal and specific ways to achieve this. It is known that the same goal can be achieved in different ways.

So, if a person wants to become rich, then he can get a job in a prestigious company, open his own business, write a good book, engage in criminal activity... And vice versa - the same action can be performed for different purposes.

In addition, the desire to achieve a specific goal can also be explained by one’s own considerations. Why does a person want to get rich? Someone wants to buy a mansion by the sea, someone wants to get married, someone wants to professionally do what they love (and not something that just generates income). In such cases, they say that a person is guided by certain motives.

Usually, a person organizing some kind of activity and achieving a certain goal is guided by several motives at once, which is why psychologists talk about one or another motivation. The problem of motivation in psychology is one of the most difficult. Often a person himself does not realize exactly what motives he was guided by when he performed some actions.

There are hidden motives associated with some memories, fears, etc. Such motives are not reflected in consciousness and act on a subconscious level; a person only feels some kind of vague tension, discomfort, which he strives to overcome with the help of certain actions.

Thus, a goal is what we want to achieve, and a motive is the reason why we want to achieve it. Motivation in psychology is understood as both the set of motives that control an individual’s behavior and the process of this control itself.

Types of motives in psychology

Psychologists identify a large number of types of motives, dividing them into several categories. It is not easy to create such a classification, since there are a lot of circumstances that guide a person; Each direction of psychology and each school has its own system. However, the most widespread division of motives into four groups.

Internal and external motives

These types are important not only in terms of the choice of means and ways to achieve the goal, but also for the self-realization of human individuality. Internal motives are such as interests, hobbies, the need for positive emotions and avoidance of negative ones, the desire to increase self-esteem, etc. These circumstances are related to the person himself and his attitude to his activities.

External motivation is circumstances that do not depend on a person and his desires and lie outside his personal sphere. These may be motives such as public opinion, a change in weather, the desire to get a higher grade or avoid punishment, etc.

External and internal motivations can work simultaneously, or they can act separately. For example, a student diligently does his homework. He can do this both because he is interested in the topic, and in order to get a good grade, please his parents, brag to his friends, etc.

External motivation plays a fairly large role in human life, since most people need a certain socialization. Such motives are often more effective than internal ones; this is the same “kick in the ass” without which some people will not do anything at all. However, for personal development, internal motives are still the most preferable. Only with their help can you do your work truly productively. All creative activity is based primarily on internal motivation.

Positive and negative motives

Like needs, drives are associated with emotions. A person in his actions can be driven by the desire to receive pleasure, pleasure, and then this is a positive motivation, or he can also be driven by the desire to avoid punishment, pain, fear and other negative experiences, and then this is a negative motivation.

Researchers cannot yet definitively say which of these motives are more effective in achieving a goal. Negative motivation can encourage one to overcome obstacles, endure minor inconveniences, and work until exhaustion; but it also destroys a person who will never truly love or understand his business. Therefore, positive motives still seem more preferable.

Sustainable and unstable motives

Stable motivations are those that are based on human needs and do not require any additional reinforcement. Such motives have existed for quite a long time. Unsustainable motivation changes quickly. Thus, the internal motivations of the individual are stable, since changes in worldview, interests, and tastes occur rarely and gradually. External motivation, on the contrary, is unstable, since the demands of society, the mood of others, and the weather outside change quickly.

Achieving success

This is a separate type of motivation that has become relevant recently. Modern society sets a person up for success from childhood. It is not prestigious to be unsuccessful; success brings with it material well-being, public recognition, and other benefits. Success increases a person's social status.

It would seem that every person wants to achieve success. However, in reality, there are many obstacles on the way to achieving it, which sometimes discourage the desire to achieve success altogether. One of the reasons for this is a person’s lack of understanding of why he needs to achieve this goal. It happens that the set goal is too far away and gets lost among the many obstacles that arise; in this case, it is advisable to break the achievement of this success into several intermediate goals.

Often achieving great success involves leaving the so-called comfort zone. This means sacrificing something small in order to get something much bigger in the end; the ability to take risks, endure small troubles with the expectation that these problems will be more than compensated for when success is achieved. And this is where many potentially successful people give up.

Often the “comfort zone” is presented as a physical, mental, ideological or spiritual space in which a person feels good and comfortable, he does not suffer and, it would seem, is provided with everything he needs. In fact, psychologists understand something different by this concept. For some people, the “comfort zone” is associated precisely with suffering, inconvenience, pain, and leaving this zone can relieve suffering and bring happiness. But a person does not want to make this exit; he feels “good” when he feels bad. What is the reason for this paradox?

This situation is perfectly illustrated in the famous play “Dragon” by E. Schwartz, based on which a film was made in the late 80s. The inhabitants of the fairy-tale city come to terms with the fact that a terrible dragon has established dictatorial rule over them, who sets his own rules and, in particular, regularly demands that the most beautiful girls in the city be given to him.

When a brave knight appears and kills the dragon and gives the inhabitants freedom, they immediately... elect a new dictator who makes them suffer in the same way. It turned out that the residents could not make an effort to learn to live without any dictators and suffering: in their minds, freedom, thinking, responsibility and hard work seem to be even greater suffering than the insane rules of this or that dictator, which one can get used to.

The dragon freed people from the need to think and gave them, albeit unfair and deceitful, but a simple and understandable picture of the world, which was enough to learn by heart.

Types of Human Motivation

Such types of motivation as “carrot” and “stick” are widely known. This is nothing more than an idea of negative and positive motives. These principles have long been used in economics, politics, management, education and other areas, including everyday life.

It is interesting that these types of motivations can characterize not only an individual, but also a certain society. It is known, for example, that since ancient times the Russian consciousness has been more characterized by “stick” motivation than “carrot” motivation. This is even reflected in the proverbs: “Until thunder strikes, a man will not cross himself.” A similar character of the Russian person was noted by researchers of culture and even religion. Thus, one church historian said that Russian Orthodox people have long believed not so much in God as in the devil, and in Russian religious (and for the most part folk-religious) culture, thousands of ways and advice have arisen on how to avoid meeting with evil spirits; at the same time, original Orthodoxy condemns such a practice, because if a person believes in “an all-powerful God,” then he should not be afraid of evil spirits.

“Gingerbread” is largely a Western system of motifs. Thus, in European countries there are a number of incentives for citizens who strictly comply with the law, and a relatively mild system of punishments for those who violate the laws. In our country, the opposite is true: practically nothing is provided for law-abiding citizens, but the system of punishments is extensive, confusing, cruel and clumsy.

However, in modern Western society the role of the “stick” in certain areas is also growing. There, cruel treatment of children and violation of discipline in enterprises are severely condemned. The existing problems, say, in public health care in themselves are a “stick” for Europeans, encouraging them to work hard to pay for private medical services.

Which of these motives are most effective? Each country and each people has its own answer to this question. History shows that European society was favorably influenced by the widespread increase in the “carrot”, that is, the development of positive motives; but opposite trends led to revolutions, strikes, spontaneous and organized mass protests. This has been evident in European history for centuries.

In modern Singapore, the “whip” played a key role in the prosperity of society. There are a great many restrictions and prohibitions in this city-state, and in order to maintain impeccable order, punishments such as caning are widely used. There are no “carrots” for citizens here. And it seems strange to many of us how such methods have led Singapore to an economic and social miracle, high standards of living, social cohesion (and this in a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural country with a high population density) and the absence of mass discontent.

The countries of Eastern Europe, the USA, and China stand out in that their societies maintain a certain balance of incentives. For Eastern Europe, this was especially noticeable during the years of the Soviet bloc: citizens loyal to the state regime, who worked conscientiously and cared about their high “moral character” (from the point of view of the authorities), were guaranteed a fairly high standard of living, a certain degree of civil liberties, provision of consumer goods. And next to this is the brutal persecution of dissidents, dissidents, “parasites,” and the condemnation of an immoral way of life, elevated to ideology. Something similar could be seen in these countries both before and after the “Soviet era.” Only people who were characterized by a struggle between opposing systems of motives could build such a society. To compare this with the Western European system, just look at the prisons in these countries: Norwegian or Dutch ones are more reminiscent of resort hotels, and Polish or Romanian ones are more like a concentration camp.

This makes some sense. In the cultures of different countries, the image of a prison is given the role of a kind of “scarecrow”, with the help of which some people try to motivate others, thereby controlling their behavior. In Russia, the USA, China and the countries of Eastern Europe, a prison is not a correctional institution, but an “institution for the execution of punishments,” and its task is to oppress and destroy the individual, to destroy the criminal morally and often physically. And only the desire not to “slide” to the point of ending up behind bars gives the average person in these countries the impetus to perform socially useful actions (work, provide for their family, respect others, do not steal, do not kill, etc.). The first opportunity to avoid a prison sentence motivates a typical resident of these countries to commit a crime.

The behavior of Europeans is subject to different principles. Apparently, a prison term does not frighten them: after all, the existing restrictions in the prisons there do not humiliate the prisoner as an individual, the prison staff show him a certain respect. But at the same time, the discipline of Europeans, their politeness, and desire to work hard (but not overwork) is amazing. If you leave a wallet with money on a bench in some German city, then, most likely, a week later you will find it there completely untouched (currently the situation is much different due to the abundance of migrants in Germany and other European countries who have completely different psyche). The reason is that the average European is determined to achieve success and maintain his good reputation, and any “wrong” action can ruin this reputation. You won’t go to jail, but your friends will turn away from you, your girlfriend will stop loving you, your parents will kick you out of the house, you won’t be hired by a good organization...

If you delve into history, you can see what motivated people in different countries, creating similar inventions, performing the same actions. A good example is the creation of a printing press. Johannes Gutenberg was definitely positively motivated: with the help of his printing house, he wanted to improve his financial condition, gain fame and influence, become a pioneer of something new, and give people new opportunities for development. He was the creator, chief worker and owner of his enterprise. In fact, he succeeded in his plans: not only merchants and artisans, but also royalty and the church became his clients.

The Russian pioneer printer Ivan Fedorov was motivated by slightly different considerations. For him, his work was rather ritual; he wanted to “serve God.” The visible analogues of “god” for him were rulers, church hierarchs, and boyars. In the first Moscow printing house, opened by the Tsar and Metropolitan for personal needs, Fedorov was a powerless worker, and he did not want to have any personal benefits from this enterprise. For a long time, the pioneer printer was driven by circumstances that did not allow him to fully implement his plans: ordinary priests and book copyists were angry with him, the printing house was quickly burned and forced him to flee the country to Lithuania, and then to Ukraine. Outside Russia, the pioneer printer's business went much better, but again at the expense of strong rulers. The Russian pioneer printer never acquired his own personal printing house. Apparently, the Christian god and government officials were for Fedorov a kind of “whip” that should be feared and served.

“The Man in the Case” is another character, now literary, who was clearly motivated solely by the “whip”. His favorite saying was the expression “no matter what happens,” which he repeated whenever he saw something unusual. Those around him were surprised where this petty official, a quiet and inconspicuous man, suddenly awakened with remarkable energy, with which he began to scribble complaints left and right. All-encompassing fear prompted him to act, while those around him were motivated in their actions by positive considerations.

The problem of the struggle of motives

As already mentioned, a person is simultaneously controlled by several motives, often prompting him to different actions. For example, a classic situation. It’s early morning, the alarm clock rings, which you set specifically to get up early and go for a morning run. But that was yesterday, and now I really don’t want to get out from under the warm blanket when I can sleep for another half hour.

What will you choose, which motive will win? This depends on many factors, including the importance of motives, willpower, common sense and additional incentives. For example, if you agreed to run with a friend, and he will wait for you.

In the example given, the situation is not so critical, but it happens that a person is faced with a very difficult choice: to save himself or to save other people, to commit a crime and achieve a goal, or not to commit and give up what he wants. The struggle of motives can become a source of very complex and severe internal conflict, leading to the development of neurosis or depression.

Psychologists in a situation of conflict of motives advise relying on the rational sphere, that is, not giving in to emotions, thinking over the arguments for and against, assessing the pros and cons of one or another course of action. And most importantly, focus on the most socially significant motives. After all, having achieved your goal, but lost the trust and respect of society, you will lose more than you gain.

Despite the fact that we are not aware of all motives, it is possible to control the motivational sphere. To do this, you should learn to build a hierarchy of motives, focusing on the most important and significant ones. The hierarchy of motives is associated with social values and the priorities that exist in our lives.

What is Motivation? Motivation concept

In domestic and foreign psychology, many definitions of the concept of motivation have been given, several concepts and motivational models have been developed (the theory of A. Maslow, Herzberg, McClelland).

The word Motivation is a specific and unique system of internal and external incentives that encourage a person to express himself in one way or another. To many people, this concept will seem something sublime, but it is motivation that helps in achieving the goal; it shapes the desires and aspirations of the individual.

If a school graduate wants to become a programmer in the future, then he will be motivated to enter the information faculty and will make every possible effort to do so. And, having become a student of the desired faculty, he will experience unprecedented joy, and his studies will turn out well.

Another example: if a person is hungry, he will be motivated to suppress this feeling, his actions will be aimed at preparing food or buying ready-made food. After satisfying this need, the lowest, according to A. Maslow’s pyramid, a person will experience positive feelings and will be active to achieve other goals.

Most scientists put into this concept everything that encourages a person to be active, calling it a motive. Motives are a set of techniques, explanations of a person’s actions and deeds, or an object (not necessarily animate), towards the possession of which the activity of the individual is directed.
Domestic psychologists S.L. Rubinstein and A.N. Leontyev defines motives as a certain human need, both conscious and unconscious.

An example of an unconscious motive: this is constant criticism and reproaches of another person for small mistakes, which is realized by a person as an increase in his importance and activity, but this is typical for people who are unsure of themselves. The motives of the criminal are often hidden not only from law enforcement agencies, but also from the criminal himself.

To realize the motive, it is necessary to do careful inner work.

In science, it is customary to distinguish between the concepts of motive, goal and need:

need is a conscious or unconscious internal urge;
goal is the conscious final result of one’s actions;
the very definition of motive was described above.

In order to determine your own motivation, you need to answer the following questions:

Why am I doing this?
What needs do I have that I want to satisfy?
What results do I expect to get from my actions and the degree of their significance for me?
What makes me act this way and not otherwise?

Main characteristics of motivation

Motivation has its own characteristics:

direction,
hierarchy and stability of goals,
mediated by the intellect of the individual;
has a social origin.

Taking into account the above characteristics, school programs, areas of additional education, incentives for enterprise employees, social support for women in the state, and so on are being developed.

Concept and functions

The term motivation comes from the Latin word movere, which translates as “to move.” This concept has several interpretations:

Inspiration to action.
Dynamic psychophysiological process. It helps control behavior. Activity, stability, direction, organization are determined.
The ability of an individual to satisfy desires through activities.

Main functions:

Stimulating - encourages an individual to perform certain actions. Motivation will be present until the individual gets what he needs.
Directing - redirects energy to the desired object. Behavioral strategies depend on this function.
Incentive - causes a state of need, in which the mobilization of energy begins. Behavior changes, increased activity in actions appears.
Regulatory - the nature of behavior is predetermined by motive.

Many people confuse motive with goal or need, but these concepts have different interpretations. Needs are a subconscious desire to get rid of discomfort. A goal is the result of a person’s conscious choice and direction of action.

Stages of the motivational process

Motivation as a process can consist of several sequential stages:

The occurrence or shortage of something (need);
Finding ways to satisfy or eliminate ways of dissatisfying needs;
Defining goals, specifying them and finding ways to achieve them;
Direct implementation of the action;
Awareness of obtaining or not obtaining the desired result;
Cessation of an action as a result of satisfying a need, or searching for new ways to terminate one’s need.

Classification of motivations

Motivation processes are distinguished according to the following criteria:

By way of use:

normative – motivating the subject to action with the help of instructions, psychological influence, explanation, suggestion, information;
coercive – the use of blackmail, threats and intimidation to induce an individual to act.
stimulating - the creation of external circumstances that encourage a person to be active.

According to the source of motives:

Internal (another name is intense) - motivation aimed at satisfying a person’s internal desires, is formed under the influence of the aspirations and personality traits of the person himself. For example, the desire to finish a project faster, fear of heights, desire to draw.
External (extreme) – motivation based on external environmental circumstances. For example, wages for employees, rules of student behavior in class, working conditions.

Based on the results of the action:

positive - a person’s activity with the aim of receiving positive reinforcement (a salary increase, time off for an employee, watching a cartoon or going to a playroom for a child);
negative – avoiding the negative consequences of one’s actions (fines, decreased trust of the team).

By duration:

stable – lasts a long period of action, does not require additional reinforcement;
unstable - characterized by a change in phases of personality activity, needs additional stimulation.

By coverage:

personal, concerns one specific person;
group – motivation aimed at a group of people united by a common characteristic.

Application in various fields

Psychologists have identified different methods of motivation that can be effectively used in work, relationships, etc. The most effective include methods used in psychology, management, and economics.

In psychology

Techniques:

Self-hypnosis is a process by which a person independently influences his psyche. The main goal is to change behavior, actions, beliefs, interests. With the help of self-hypnosis, a person can make his behavior unusual. For the method to work, you need to prepare a list of attitudes and statements that seem correct. When making statements, you cannot use the particle “not”.
Affirmations are expressions or small texts that can be used to influence a person on a psychological level. For affirmations to work, you need to divide a blank sheet of paper into two parts. On the left write negative statements that cause fear and anxiety, on the right - positive ones. It is important to write down negative statements in detail to reveal hidden fears. After this, you need to cut the sheet into two parts, carry the side with positive affirmations with you constantly, reading them every day.
Self-motivation is the desire, the desire to continue activities when natural motivation is lost. You need to constantly look for reasons that will make you continue to act so as not to give up.

In management

Motivation techniques used in management:

Economic - material incentives. These include increased wages, financial assistance, bonuses, and loans.
Non-economic - moral, psychological or organizational. These include praise, support, approval, trust, respect, blame, prospects for further growth, delegation of authority, tasks.

In economics

The main methods of motivation in economics:

penalties;
social payments;
rewards.

Methods of motivation in practice

There are many ways to motivate, and they all differ from one another.

Staff motivation

Social motivation is a system of moral, material and professional incentives for an employee.

It aims to increase employee activity and productivity. The measures used for this may depend on various conditions:

incentive systems at the enterprise;
features of enterprise management;
areas of its activity;
number of personnel;
management style, etc.

Motivation methods are divided into 3 groups:

economic (material);
organizational and administrative (following regulations);
socio-psychological (following social interests).

The most effective is the carrot and stick method, which is practiced by many enterprises.

Student motivation

It is also important for students and schoolchildren, as it contributes to good learning. It allows you to set long-term goals, choose a behavioral strategy, and achieve high results.

Motivation in children and adolescents rarely arises spontaneously. In this regard, psychologists and educators have developed various techniques to induce motivation. They provide an opportunity to develop safely, learn and experience new things. These techniques include:

attracting attention (interesting experiences and facts, comparisons, life stories);
experiencing emotions when presenting materials due to their scale and value;
making comparisons between scientific research and life experience;
creating an atmosphere of scientific discussion, educational discussion;
joyful experience of achievements;
giving information the effect of novelty;
equating educational materials to the category of achievements, their updating;
application of positive and negative motivation;
formation of social motives (the desire to acquire an authoritative opinion, to contribute to development).

Self-motivation

Self-motivation is the use of individual motivational methods based on personal beliefs:

desires and aspirations;
focus and consistency;
determination to act and consistency.

The main indicator of correct self-motivation is the situation when, in the presence of great interference from the outside, a person does not give up and continues to move towards his goal.

The individual performs conscious actions aimed at achieving the desired result.

To motivate yourself, you can use methods such as:

affirmations - a selection of positive statements that influence the individual’s subconscious and lead to a positive effect;
self-hypnosis is an influence that has a person’s independent influence on his own psyche, the purpose of which is to create a new behavioral model;
biographies of successful people are an effective way of stimulation based on studying the life stories of great personalities;
formation of strong-willed skills - performing actions aimed at overcoming one’s own laziness, fears and reluctance to act;
Visualization is an effective method that is based on the mental representation and emotional experience of achieved goals.

Self-hypnosis

Self-hypnosis can be effective only if a person has the ability to do so: he can influence his subconscious and psyche, causing the desired reaction and achieving a positive effect.

Biographies of successful people

Using this method is suitable for both children and adults. A person sees the full picture: there was a desire, then action followed, and then the result.

Visualization

Visualization is a powerful method of achieving goals, because thoughts tend to materialize. An important condition for its use is the presence of active actions to achieve goals.

McClelland's theory of needs

The meaning of the theory is that a person should not deal with already satisfied needs, but focus on needs of a higher level:

on the desire for success, professional and personal growth;
on the desire to be part of society and occupy a prestigious position in it;
on the acquisition of power, which involves the formation of a high share of responsibility and makes it possible to control the lives of other people.

We hope that our article will be useful to you and will help you take steps towards mobilizing all internal resources to improve your life.

What determines the level of motivation?

Regardless of the incentive that helps a person move forward, the level of motivation is not constant and unchanging.

Depending on the actions performed, accompanying circumstances and other factors, its level can either increase or decrease.

Factors that determine motivation levels:

the significance of the achieved result;
faith in its achievement;
personal forecasts regarding the implementation of the plan;
own understanding and idea of success.

Individual motivation is always stronger, because it is aimed at achieving clear goals and obtaining measurable results.

How motivation works: moving towards a goal

The main motivators that push a person to action are the desire to achieve something and the fear of losing something. The first includes all activities aimed at various achievements (purchase, search, victory), and the second includes the desire to avoid losses (time, finances, opportunities).

All others are derivatives of these 2 factors. A person commits all his actions because of one of these incentives.

For one person, going to the gym with a lot of people is a positive aspect, because there is an opportunity for communication, but for another, it is a negative aspect, because a large crowd of people makes him feel uncomfortable.