Determinism - what it is, what is the essence of the principle of determinism, categories and types of determinism. What is indeterminism?

Determinism is another of the teachings concerning the theory of regularity, cause-and-effect relationships and their interaction, as well as everything that happens in the world around us. This is a brief interpretation, read the article for more details.

The very word “term” implies a definition of something. Hence the concept of “determinism”, which is actively used today in a variety of fields, from philosophical to technical. Determinism is especially popular in psychology, as it is a way to better understand the characteristics of thinking. The Latin origin of the word interprets it as “to determine,” and it was this that was used by the founder of the doctrine, the Greek scientist and philosopher Democritus, for whom it was always important to determine the causes of everything that happens.

How did the concept of determinism evolve?

• Like any teaching, the concept of determinism has gone through certain stages. Antiquity designated hylozoism, a doctrine that says that everything that is material on earth is alive.
• Later, with the expansion of biological knowledge of mankind, scientists started talking about the fact that only living beings have a soul, and there is a close connection between biology and psychology.

Principles

• After the works of the early Christian thinker Aurelius Augustine were published in the 4th century, who argued that the soul is the source of all knowledge leading to the realization of the goal, his concept gained popularity: in order to understand the psychology of people, it is necessary to have and use internal experience.

Forms and representatives of determinism - Laplace determinism

• Today you can find interpretations of determinism related to ancient, Laplacean, natural science and modern (also called synergetic) forms.
• Ancient interpretations rested on causality and necessity . These teachings were also developed by Leucippus, in addition to Democritus.
• Laplace determinism (this is already an established name) today often underlies the exact sciences of physics or mathematics, as well as philosophical teachings. Laplace's theory speaks about the impact of causes and external factors initially, during the development process, shaping and determining it, as well as on the consequences.

Representative

• A representative of mechanistic determinism , which equates the living with the automatic, was Thomas Hobbes. He was opposed by the teaching of Rene Descartes, who separated spirit and matter. The theory of Benedict Spinoza stands out in particular, who considered the original cause, and causality, the main connecting link between everything that exists and happens in the world.
• Modern determinism has absorbed all previous teachings, generalizing them. Today he talks about the special role of such a category as interconnection and interaction, since absolutely everything changes - from material to psychological components.

Formation of a deterministic view in the ancient period

Understanding the causality of certain phenomena appeared in the ancient period among ancient peoples. This was facilitated by the development of political and public life, especially in Ancient Greece. Views about causation were expressed by Democritus and Leucippus.

In ancient India, ideas of cause and effect were closely related to karma and rebirth. Here, one can observe the relationship between a person’s behavior and his quality of rebirth in a future life.

In Ancient China, Lao Tzu studied deterministic processes especially carefully. He called this process “Tao”. It exists constantly, in everything and everywhere. Tao represents inaction, does not depend on time, creates the universal unity of the world.

The formation of the deterministic direction originates in Ancient Greece. Ancient philosophers, in their works, examined in detail the laws of the world. It was called differently: “nike”, “logos”, “homeomerism”, “nous”, “atoms”, “chance”, “vortex”, four types of cause according to Aristotle.

What is the essence of the principle of determinism?

• To more fully understand what is happening to us and around us, scientists use several criteria, considering the correspondence of what is happening, complementarity, and, among other things, determinism . In essence, it is a teaching that confirms that there are no coincidences in our lives.

Description

• Scientists deduce these confirmations based on the behavioral characteristics of all living things. Determinism not only studies for what reasons and in accordance with what factors our thinking is formed, but also proves that these factors influence us collectively. Under their influence, our behavior changes and mental characteristics develop.

[edit] Criticism

[edit] Eastern philosophy

Nagarjuna intensively comprehends the relativity of cause-and-effect relationships.
The question of causality is the first

in the history of Indian philosophy. The so-called orthodox (Brahminical) and heterodox (Jains, Buddhists) schools are divided precisely by the question: is there a cause in an effect or an effect in itself? Judging by the sutras, the determinists were trolled by Buddha, Mahavira, and someone before them, whose names history has not preserved due to uselessness. The Buddhist Nagarjuna finally completed the arguments of the critics in the 3rd century AD.

First, we cannot say that the effect is different from the cause. Because in this case it is impossible to prove that this consequence is a consequence of this particular cause and not of any other reason. The event-effect and the event-cause must literally grow into each other.

Secondly, the effect is not identical to the cause, because then it makes no sense to distinguish them at all. Since they are so closely related, it is much easier to consider them one event.

Thirdly, cause and effect cannot be both identical and different, because this would contradict the first two statements.

Fourthly, the cause does not produce the effect. Because then you’ll have to figure out how she does it:

• Was the effect already present in the cause?
  Then they were simply one and the same event.

• The effect did not pre-exist in the cause, but appeared anew?
  And where is the guarantee then that another consequence cannot SUDDENLY jump out of the cause? Since something takes and appears anew, then why can’t something else spontaneously generate?

• Both happened together
  - it turns out that the effect is present in the cause, but in fact it is not there? Something doesn't add up again.

Thus, cause does not produce effect; nothing can be produced at all.

How then do mechanical watches work? Obviously, because they are not a chain of causes and effects, but a single vinar mechanism

. One wheel turns another, another turns a third, and the result is predictable because all the wheels are connected into a single whole.

In a word, from the point of view of the most canonical Buddhist logic, causality is empty

. Not in the sense that it does not exist, but in the fact that it does not exist on its own and depends on the model that we have chosen. For example, a chain of events can be cut into separate events, either in large or small pieces, the components and phenomena can be grouped in different ways, the pieces can be hidden in black boxes, etc.

So, for example, if karma determined 100% of everything that happens in this world, then a person would not have a single chance to correct it. After all, in order to correct karma, you need to do something good, but how can you do it if your behavior is also determined? On the other hand, a person’s problems are often caused by his own mistakes, so some kind of karma is still present in life. How to solve this paradox? It’s very simple: there is karma, but it is unstable (or, as it is sometimes translated, empty). That is, even a person who has messed up a lot can repent and upgrade to complete enlightenment. This is such zen.

Or a simpler example: the same clock. For example, if the wheels and winding mechanism were the reason why a watch worked, then different watches would show different times. But they show the same time! This means that wheels are not everything. We need a clear idea for a watch, with a dial and hands. And even this is not enough - a person needs to be able to tell the time using a watch. And to ensure that the mechanism works, it must be wound regularly and not dropped or lost. If you find someone else's watch, there is no guarantee that it works correctly, shows the correct time and is set exactly for the time zone in which you are located. So for the clock to work, the clock alone is not enough; you need an observer consciousness that monitors time.

Muslim theologians consider determinism to be bullshit, to which a devout Muslim should not pay attention. After all, Allah is immeasurably great and wise and it is not a problem for him to create any miracle, and in such a way that no one will notice anything.

[edit] Western philosophy

The English philosopher David Hume tore classical determinism to smithereens, saying that the necessity of causality is a fiction of our mind. For in reality we do not observe universal causal necessity, but we can only observe the repeated connection of some events with others, the contiguity of these events in space, as well as the precedence of some events to others in time. We do not observe everything else, but actually infer the empirically recorded events. If you hammer a bolt on this metaphysics, it turns out that the idea of ​​causal necessity is simply the expectation that similar causes will be followed by similar effects. That is, the connection of events can be observed, but necessity cannot.

Popper came from the other side and proposed comparing two objects: clouds and clocks. Clocks symbolize physical systems whose behavior is regularly and precisely predictable. But is it really possible to predict the appearance and disappearance of clouds, hurricanes or volcanic eruptions as accurately? Although these phenomena also obey physical laws, they bear little resemblance to the operation of mechanisms. Now let’s imagine that all other things, phenomena and processes are located between these extreme poles - clouds and clocks. For example, it would be logical to place animals closer to the clouds, and plants closer to the clock. Laplacean determinism states that all “clouds” are actually “clocks.” But essentially the world is an interconnected collection of clouds and clocks, where even the best clocks have something “cloud-like” about them.

Categories of determinism

The principle of determinism first classified only in the last century, and one of the classification systems was proposed by the Argentine philosopher and physicist Mario Bunge.

He identified the following categories of determinism:

• Statistical
• Quantitative
• Structural
• Mechanical
• Dialectical
• Theological

And this scientist noted one more category - we are talking about determinism in the contact of several people. If we consider each of the above categories in more detail, we can also highlight such concepts as connection, cause and effect , interaction and probability, connection of states and correlation, conditions and necessity, foresight and many more components.

Cause effect

Chance and Necessity

An important issue for any theory of determinism is the status of the category of randomness. The essence of the problem is as follows. If we accept the principle of causality, which is mandatory for the concept of philosophical determinism, then random phenomena should also be considered causal. But the obligatory property of causality is necessity, therefore, chance is also necessary, and the objective opposition of necessity and chance is meaningless.

If we consider the terms “accident” and “necessity”, we can distinguish two areas of their application. Firstly, these concepts can be attributed to objective reality and considered as properties of matter as a whole, independent of our perception and knowledge. This scope of application of the concepts of “necessity” and “accident” can be called objective or ontological. Secondly, these terms can be associated with epistemology and be considered as criteria for assessing events and phenomena in the objective world, used to study and detect them. This scope of the concepts “necessity” and “accident” can be conditionally called subjective or epistemological.

What types of determinism are there?

If there is a classification in terms of categories, then, of course, the task of scientists has become to break down determinism into types.

As a result, today we distinguish:

1. Multiple (multi) determinism terminism , which speaks of the influence of many factors on everything that happens.
2. Psychological determinism was especially emphasized by the great Sigmund Freud, who argued that nothing is random and the smallest event is significant.
3. Cultural determinism is based on a person’s upbringing, laid down in childhood and influencing all subsequent emotional states and actions.
4. Mutual determinism is understood as components of an integral complex of a person’s psychological type: thinking, cognitive abilities, activity, influence of external factors.

Next, we will consider in detail these and other types of determinism:

Multiple determinism

• This term is used to refer to the multiple factors that cause a behavior or event, as well as the multiple purposes they serve. Freud used a similar direction in his teachings, calling it overdetermination.
• Continuing to develop this concept, Robert Velder came to the conclusion that any of the mental actions concentrates a complex of mental efforts , factors determined by the external environment, etc. Thus, even the solution to one issue simultaneously becomes an attempt to resolve another.

Cultural determinism

• Here we are talking about the dominant role of culture in the fate of each of us. From infancy, a person becomes an integral part of a certain culture, which dictates opportunities and determines restrictions that regulate the entire course of life. And, accordingly, when choosing a solution, the dominant role is played by the culture in which a person was raised.
• Thus, the doctrine of cultural determinism practically deprives a person of independent, independent choice. He settles on the decision that corresponds to the concepts accepted in his cultural environment. At the same time, many researchers emphasize that cultural influence is complemented by biological, social, etc.

Mutual determinism

• This teaching speaks about the influence of three aspects at once on a person and his behavior: the person himself, his behavior and the environment. The last factor refers to a person’s environment, close, familiar and unfamiliar people who are around and with whom he is forced to interact.
• Personality is manifested in character traits, attitudes, interests and, of course, behavior. But the behavior itself reinforces or becomes unusual for a given person.

Characteristic

• In other words, our thoughts, views, tastes can determine the environment we choose and the nature of our behavior. In turn, behavior can change both the world around us and our thoughts. It is this interaction that theorists define as mutual determinism.

Technological determinism

• Another type of the doctrine of determinism, which puts the development of science and technology at the forefront of the entire development of society and the formation of its structure. This direction defines the entire history of mankind as relationships with nature, the ability to adapt to its conditions and even conquer it.

About technological

• It is precisely this criterion that corresponds to the characteristics of “development” and “backwardness” of states , based on the level of technical progress and excluding spiritual and cultural development. Thus, according to this theory, society follows in its development from pre-industrial (the institutions of the church and the army dominate here), through industrial (free trade, factory organization of labor, a unified economic system) to post-industrial, where the information component and level of knowledge already come to the fore .

Biological determinism

• Defined as the influence of biological laws on the general perception of existence. Emerging in the 19th century, during the rapid development of science, many discoveries and achievements in it, it had several schools, from social Darwinism with its natural selection and the struggle for survival, to racism, talking about racial differences and their determining role in history and culture.
• In many ways, Freud's teachings, based on the primacy of instincts and the subconscious, can also be attributed to biological determinism This also includes the Malthusian school, as well as neo-Malthusianism.

About organisms
Historical determinism

• This direction is characterized by the assertion that the effect is generated by the cause. With all the reservations and exceptions to the rule, followers of historical determinism deny that the course of history is predetermined.
• Since the existence of a person occurs at many levels (psychology, biology, culture, social status, economics, politics, etc.), each of them tends to be a priority at one time or another.
• Taking into account not only the objective course of development, but also subjective factors, it is hardly possible to assume what and in what period will form the basis of the social state.
• At the same time, historical determinism does not reject the objectivity of knowledge of the past, but cognizes it precisely in accordance with its inherent conditions and factors.

Mechanical determinism

• In this direction of the doctrine of determinism, it is argued that causes inherently influence what the effect of their influence will be. It is generally accepted that this interpretation does not take into account the influence of external factors and conditions in which a person exists, considering him essentially isolated from the outside world.

Description

• So, as an example, we can cite an action such as movement. According to the theory of mechanical determinism, it should be infinite, since it is caused by a certain cause (effort). But in reality, external factors come into relationship - the same acceleration, friction, inertia.
• It is this complex of influences that determines the trajectory, distance, time of movement and even corrects its direction.

Geographical determinism

• This concept considers the determining influence of the forces of nature on the process of development of society. Thus, the concepts of flora and fauna, climate, relief, etc. come to the fore. factors specific to the area.
• It is they, according to representatives of geographical determinism , that “dictate” the conditions for the formation of society, the economy, down to physical characteristics and the psyche.

Geographical

• The doctrine dates back to antiquity as opposed to mythology and religion . It received particular development in the 18th century, in the works of Montesquieu. The most radical followers of the theory even considered man to be a “product” of the earth’s surface. Among the Russian scientists who, to one degree or another, agreed with such an interpretation are Mechnikov and Gumilyov.

Social determinism

• The decisive role in this direction of determinism is given to the forces driving social development. In different interpretations of theorists one can find different forces: from the same geographical and material to supernatural and even ideas.
• Almost every scientist and philosopher who studies and develops determinism relates in one way or another to the social factor - Montesquieu, Hegel, and Marx. Only the driving forces that they identified as dominant differ.
• Today, the accepted approach is that various spheres of social life in one period or another can become dominant. In addition, there is constant interaction between them.

Evolution of the principle

In relation to psychology in the development of determinism, several eras stand out. The first period of the emergence of determinism was the pre-mechanical stage. Initially, determinism manifested itself as the recognition of natural and cosmic laws as fundamental ones, subordinating both natural natural phenomena and human life.

The representative of this stage was the Greek philosopher Democritus, who believed that man, like all surrounding nature, consists of atoms. From the point of view of Democritus, the soul becomes the source of energy for the body. The ancient Greek philosopher was a representative of universal determinism.

He believed that human moral principles cannot be inherited or given by nature; they are the product of social influences. Aristotle interpreted the reason for the existence and activity of man and nature differently. He came to the inseparability of the soul from the living body as a system that has an integral organization and purposefulness of the human soul.

With the collapse of antiquity, religious worldviews arose. The representative of the spontaneity of the soul and the hidden abilities for movement and activity inherent in it was Augustine, who founded theological psychology.

It is based on the opposite of determinism, indeterminism, which recognizes exclusively personal experience as a criterion of reliability. Such idealistic ideas are still opposed to the materialistic view of what is happening in the world and the human psyche.

Mechanistically, determinism arose with the active development of science in the 17th century. The rationalist philosopher Spinoza rejected the dualistic understanding of man, which divided him into spiritual and physical components. Spinoza described the essence of human psychology with the help of the created doctrine of affects.

Spinoza identifies 3 main affects: desire, pleasure, displeasure. Also representatives of the movement were English and French materialists, some of whom considered man to be a “machine of an organic body” or simply an organized system. The weakness of this direction created the preconditions for turning to biology to explain the certainty of the human psyche.

C. Darwin and C. Bernard significantly influenced biological determinism. They talked about the purposefulness of life as a result of the desire to survive, to preserve forms that allow them to counteract the influence of the environment.

This helped move to probabilistic determination, the representative of which was the psychologist Francis Galton, who believed that human behavior can manifest itself in connection with patterns. The researcher also relied on a general biological approach, which stated that the adaptation of a species can be achieved through individual manifestations that are determined by genetics.

Based on this, Galton concluded that the mental differences of each person are also due to genetic characteristics.

At the next stage of the development of determinism in psychology in the 20th century, mental determinants were identified that regulate the relationship between the natural and the social; at the same time, the psyche began to be considered an independent phenomenon, which, although dependent on the external environment, significantly influences a person’s vital activity and his social life.

The categories of the psyche were image, action and motive, which were considered by Helmholtz, Darwin and Sechenov.

Subsequently, microsocial determinism began to develop, which saw the determination of the human psyche in interpersonal relationships. For example, Freud drew attention to mental deviations due to a traumatic relationship with his mother.

The new determinants of determination were group action and cooperation; the individuality of consciousness is formed by the transfer of external influences from microsocial relationships into one’s inner world.

A prominent representative of this trend was Vygotsky, who identified signs as psychological tools that originate in interaction with other people and are later transferred to a person’s consciousness.

He also included consciousness in the world of culture, giving it importance in the formation of the human personality. At the same time, Vygotsky spoke about the inseparability of individuality and the social environment, which is refracted before the characteristics of individuals and in itself has the character of a clash and conflict of characters.

Marxist philosophy contributed to a new form of determinism, which defined human consciousness as dependent on objective conditions, cultural and economic factors. It also contributed significantly to the development of determinism regarding human psychosocial functioning.

The Marxist principle of dialectical materialism was subsequently used by many psychologists, including L.S. Vygotsky, a Soviet psychologist who agreed that by changing the real world, independent of consciousness, with its objective activity, its subject changes itself.

Determinism evolved from idealistic ideas to biological ones, which denied unconscious internal forces and motives, a special type of organization of human mental activity, as well as materialistic ones.

Recognition of the existence of consciousness and the separation of psychology into a separate science made it possible to discover the unconscious aspects of the human psyche, as well as the important role of the microsocial sphere in human change.

Forms of the deterministic approach

Determinism is based on the fact that all events are somehow interconnected. But nevertheless, he admits that causality does not always underlie human actions.

There are several other forms of the deterministic approach to explaining actions:

• Systemic , i.e. considering the whole as a defining concept for its constituent parts.
• Statistical , which says that the consequences of the actions of one person can be different, despite the fact that the factors that stimulated them are the same.
• Feedback implies that the consequences caused by a cause can in turn influence it.
• The target form speaks of the implementation of the intended goal as a result of the activity.
• Self-determinism is concerned with the control of a person’s actions and actions in accordance with real needs.

Definition of the concept and content of the theory

Determinism in psychology is the dependence of the phenomena of mental processes on certain factors that form them. The concept of “determinism” comes from the Latin determinare - “to limit, delineate, determine,” which speaks of the main idea of ​​​​this doctrine - the interconnection and mutual determination of processes and phenomena.

The theory of determinism originates from a philosophical doctrine that recognizes the pattern of interconnection between phenomena of the objective world.

This approach to scientific knowledge as a result of evolution has become the most important component of scientific methodology, which formed the goal of research to identify patterns and causes of ongoing processes. Determinism is used both to study nature, society and the human psyche.

What is determination of behavior and psychological determinism?

• Since the relationships in the world are very significant, they are manifested not only in a person’s influence on a close circle of friends, acquaintances, and relatives, but also on society in its broad sense. This is how certain norms are formed: cultural, social, political, accepted in a certain circle.
• We consider it normal to conform to the stereotype of a citizen, but at the same time, each of us, to one degree or another, sometimes discovers that his personal qualities, character, disposition contradict some phenomena.
• It is this phenomenon that explains psychological determinism , which states that cultural and social norms influence an individual’s behavior, determining the expression of his emotions and behavioral manner. Thus, being formed under the influence of the adults around him, the child thereby supplements with external factors the qualities that were inherent in him from birth.

About the impact on humans

• This is confirmed by the theory of determinism , which speaks of the influence of natural, social and biological factors on a person’s mental state.

Determinant - what is it in linguistics and mathematics

The concept of “determinant” (from Latin determinare – limit , determine) is used in Russian and mathematics.

In linguistics, determinants are members of a sentence that serve for distribution and are not related to its other members.

They are often found at the beginning of a sentence and are expressed in different ways:

1. nouns (“THE TRIP IN IMPATIENCE seemed especially long”);
2. circumstances (“I don’t have the strength”);
3. adverbs (“IN CONSCIENCE, the manager should have left the enterprise himself”);
4. participial and participial phrases (“CONTRARY TO CIRCUMSTANCES, luck smiled on us”).

Definitions are not used as a determinant. Nouns and pronouns are often used with prepositions.

Determinants are freely attached to different sentences and form its semantic structure, often being its obligatory component. In one sentence - especially in colloquial speech - there may be several similar word forms (“For you, people have only excuses”).

The determinant was first discovered by the linguist N.Yu. Shvedova is a co-author of the famous Russian explanatory dictionary. She identified the main distinguishing feature - the absence of a grammatical connection between the determiner and the verb (“A high-ranking official is expected to arrive in the city”).

In the explanatory dictionary of foreign words there is another meaning of the word (used only in the masculine gender).

In higher mathematics, a determinant is a determinant - an expression composed of elements of a square matrix for solving linear systems of equations. The determinant can be found using a specific algorithm.

Used in problems from the sections of mathematical analysis and analytical geometry. In probability theory, the determinant of a matrix is ​​called the variance of a multidimensional random attribute.

What are the determinants of psychological development?

There are several such determinants, and all of them are factors that influence how a personality develops and what manners it acquires.

The following determinants are distinguished:

1. Genetic predisposition , which consists not only in hereditary diseases, primarily mental, but also in the repetition of actions similar to those carried out by close people.
2. Environment , which also influences the formation of a person through the conditions in which he resides.
3. Confrontation with the environment is a departure from generally accepted norms and stereotypes, conditioned by volitional qualities and manifested in voluntary actions.
4. The development of the psychological component of a personality manifests itself when a level of development has been reached (this applies to knowledge, skills, talents) that begins to contradict reality.

Who are called determinists?

• We are talking about people who are adherents of one or another direction of this teaching. They emphasize that a person essentially lacks free choice, since his actions are determined by the causality of phenomena. In other words, any action is dictated by motivation that dominates the psyche, and not by character traits or internal motivations.

Teaching

• But is it really possible to remain inactive today? Hardly. Likewise, determinists simply find in this term a justification for this or that action, pointing out the interconnection of factors that influenced it.

Deterministic means predetermined

This word is an antonym (what is it?) for the word chaos. The latter is unpredictable, and a deterministic process is characterized by the fact that its outcome is completely determined by the algorithm , the values ​​of the input variables and the initial state of the system.

Deterministic means predetermined, squeezed into a rigid framework from which one cannot escape.

In the video above, the girl talks quite clearly about a deterministic finite automaton (with a finite number of possible states), which is a good illustration of the meaning of this term:

What is indeterminism?

• Indeterminism , as the name suggests, is a doctrine that denies causality. Similar ideas are found in theological treatises, in the teachings of Kant, Hume also spoke about this. In contrast to determinism, we are talking about the subjective nature of cause and effect.
• Simply put, it is understood that when making this or that conclusion, a person is actually completely unclear about the degree of its correspondence to the true state of affairs.

Difference
The term indeterminism appeared as a scientific movement along with the development of the statistical field and is considered the opposite of determinism.