Question 24. The concept of thinking. The connection between thinking and other psychological processes. Thinking and speech.

THINKING, in the broad sense of the word, is a synonym for knowledge, especially its higher forms, relatively independent of direct sensory perception; in the narrow sense of the word, M. is understood as the processes of solving problems, expressed in the transition from the conditions that define the problem situation to obtaining the desired result.

M. may be sent preferentially. for understanding, including understanding oneself (reflection), or for drawing up a plan of action (“how to achieve what I need”). Processes of understanding are expressed in different forms: orientation in the environment based on everyday experience, mythological, philosophical, scientific. comprehension of the world, etc. Project type M provides a practical solution. tasks and drawing up action plans. In the history of science, it was the understanding-oriented mathematics of the first type (and within it theoretical mathematics) that was considered as expressing the true essence of mathematics and as one of the highest human values. The basis of M. was considered to be logical processes. conclusion based on given necessary and sufficient conditions. From the end 19 – beginning 20th centuries Thanks to the work of representatives of the Würzburg school, the interpretation of mathematics as a problem-solving process became widespread. This assumes the leading role of motivation and goals, as well as the importance of the skills of actively studying source data, their dissection, comparison and addition. Within the framework of cognitive science with con. 20th century There has been a transition from the study of reasoning problems to the analysis of solutions to complex scientific and technical problems. and organizational problems, suggesting a close relationship between design and theoretical. thinking.

Following the tradition of Aristotelian logic, I. Kant contrasted two possible methods of mathematics: analytical and synthetic. The first comes down to revealing the content that is already present in the source material, but is not expressed explicitly; the second creates new content. In modern In philosophy, analysis and synthesis are considered to be complementary aspects of thinking. Thus, consideration of M. as a single analytical-synthetic. activities are typical for Russia. psychological school of S. L. Rubinstein, the presence of elements of synthetic mathematics in deductive disciplines, and analytical mathematics in empirical disciplines. (factual) sciences was shown by W. Quine.

M. can take different forms, depending, for example, on the specific. features of culture and language (see Linguistic relativity hypothesis). F. Bartlett drew attention to the existence of qualitatively different. prof. forms of mathematics (mathematician, biologist, artist, lawyer), contrasting them with “ordinary” mathematics. He also made a distinction between mathematics in closed (the given conditions are necessary and sufficient for the solution) and open systems (the list of conditions is potentially endless, and the problem is not has a strict formal solution).

The role of sensory components in memory depends on the nature of the representation of the material and the characteristics of the operations performed. M. on the basis of perception is expressed in the transformation of the image through external actions or with the help of spatial mental operations (for example, rotation, change of scale, transfer), available, as W. Köhler showed, many others. species of animals, primarily primates (see Insight). In humans, M. based on linguistic means does not replace figurative M., which is an effective means of solving plurals. tasks (eg geometric or technical) and the playing center. role in a number of professions (musician, artist, chess player, etc.). Speech utterances serve as a means of controlling the dynamics of figurative M. In the case of dominance of verbal-logical. means M. can use concepts that are not directly correlated with figurative representations. The irreducibility of the content of memory to the processes of association of sensory elements was described by representatives of the Würzburg school (an example of ugly memory can be cases when the solution to a problem or understanding the meaning of a situation arises in the mind before the appearance of certain images).

The role of memory in memory is ambiguous - accumulated experience serves as both the most important material and ch. limiting factor for thought. In Gestalt psychology, they began to distinguish between reproductive and productive M.: the first is based on memory and comes down to the reproduction of previously learned attitudes and solution schemes, often inadequate in a specific situation, while the second is creative. a process in which new knowledge is created and new means of solving problems are formed.

Various aspects of M. are studied in various ways. disciplines. Formal logic studies the norms and rules of this type of logic, such as reasoning (although there is a point of view according to which logic does not directly deal with logic). The history of philosophy and science studies mathematics as an objective process embodied in cultural objects. Psychology studies M. from the point of view of its role in the regulation of behavior and in connection with other mental processes. functions (interaction in M. of current and past experience, the influence of motivation and emotions, attitudes, individual characteristics and level of development of the subject, etc.). Linguistics is interested in the possible interaction of the semantics and grammar of languages ​​with problem-solving processes. Epistemology clarifies the possibilities of comprehending reality with the help of M. As part of research on artificial intelligence and neural networks, work is being done on mathematics. modeling of certain types of mathematics. In cognitive science, interdisciplinary study of mathematics is carried out, taking into account data from cultural studies and ethnography. Many problems in understanding M. remain unclear and debatable, requiring the development of new approaches.

What is thinking

Under thinking

in psychology they understand the process of modeling reality with the help of axiomatic provisions, which underlies human cognitive activity. Thinking is a generalized and indirect way of reflecting reality.

Many scientists and philosophers of different eras have emphasized that thought processes are a distinctive feature of human consciousness and are the very essence of man. “I think, therefore I exist,” said Descartes. Pascal said that man is a “thinking reed.”

The result of thinking is thought - concept, idea, meaning. Thought processes are contrasted with the lower forms of knowledge of reality, which are also characteristic of animals - sensation and perception.

The fact that thinking is the content and essence of human activity can be understood by the fact that it surrounds us literally everywhere. Thinking underlies all human science, art, politics, and religion. Thus, many human buildings have not only a utilitarian purpose, but also a symbolic one: the architecture of the building, its location, the nature of the lighting, even the materials from which it was built have a certain significance.

Thinking has one distinctive feature compared to other forms of cognition. With its help, you can obtain information about an object that cannot be perceived directly. This is achieved through thought processes such as deduction and analogy.

Basic principles of training creative thinking

And finally, tips that were found in the book “The Psychology of Critical Thinking”:

1. Look for different ways to achieve your goal and then choose the best one.
2. Provide yourself with a sufficient number of aids (information) and exercises to develop and train creative skills.
3. Ask the necessary questions and determine whether there is a task.
4. Determine the quality of an idea by its consequences.
5. Reward yourself for original and useful ideas so you can enjoy the process.
6. Try to find solutions in non-standard situations, show persistence in the face of failures.
7. Make a rough plan for finding solutions (for example: recognizing unknown factors, searching for information, developing possible solutions, looking at a problem from different points of view, and setting goals).
8. Avoid labeling, classifying a task into an already known task category, and hasty decision-making (this ensures flexibility of thinking).

Types of thinking in psychology

There are several types of thinking in psychology.

All of them represent, as it were, different levels of representation of reality, different levels of abstraction

:

• Visual-effective thinking
  . This is the primary level of understanding reality. In this case, thought processes are not yet separated from actions. It’s as if a person “thinks with his hands.” This type of thinking is predominant in children under three years of age. Thus, the child compares objects by placing them next to each other; synthesizes and analyzes, building a “house” from cubes and breaking toys; generalizes and classifies, arranging cubes by color, shape and size. In adults, such thinking does not disappear, but only fades into the background; it is used in cases where it is not possible to accurately predict events: when mastering unfamiliar equipment, rearranging furniture, etc.
• Visual-figurative thinking
  . This is a higher level of understanding of reality. Here, thought processes are ahead of actions, and not vice versa, as was the case in the previous case. To imagine an object and characterize its properties, a person no longer needs to touch it with his hands. This kind of thinking prevails in a child between four and seven years old. In adults, it manifests itself when, for example, they are planning an apartment renovation: a person can already imagine in advance what the room will look like, what color the wallpaper and ceiling will be, etc.
• Verbal and logical thinking
  . These are completely abstract thought processes that operate with concepts and logical constructs; such constructions sometimes may not have a visual image at all - such are, say, concepts like “honesty”, “cost”, etc. With the help of such thinking, a person determines the general patterns of various natural phenomena and generalizes visual material. It is clear that such thinking cannot be accessible to a small child, since at an early age a person has not yet accumulated a sufficient amount of figurative material.

Your psychologist. The work of a psychologist at school.

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3.2.2 Thinking

Sensory cognition gives a person information about nine specific objects in their directly cognizable properties. However, not every phenomenon is accessible to direct sensory perception. For example, a person does not perceive ultraviolet rays, but he, nevertheless, knows about their existence and properties. Such knowledge becomes possible indirectly. This path is the path of thinking. In the most general terms, it consists in the fact that we subject some things to the test of other things and, aware of the established relations of interaction between them, judge by the change we perceive in them about the properties of these things that are directly hidden from us. Thinking is the highest cognitive process. It represents the generation of new knowledge, an active form of creative reflection and transformation of reality by man. Thinking generates a result that does not currently exist either in the activity itself or in the subject. Thinking can also be understood as the acquisition of new knowledge, the creative transformation of existing ideas. The difference between thinking and other psychological processes is also that it is almost always associated with the presence of a problem situation, a task that needs to be solved, and an active change in the conditions in which this task is given. Thinking, unlike perception, goes beyond the sensory data and expands the boundaries of knowledge. In thinking based on sensory information, certain theoretical and practical conclusions are made. It reflects existence not only in the form of individual things, phenomena and their properties, but also determines the connections that exist between them, which most often are not given directly to man in his very perception. The properties of things and phenomena, the connections between them are reflected in thinking in a generalized form, in the form of laws and entities. Thus, thinking is a generalized and indirect reflection of reality by a person in its essential connections and relationships. A generalized reflection of reality, which is thinking, is the result of processing not only the experience of an individual person and his contemporaries, but also of previous generations. A person resorts to indirect cognition in the following cases: - direct cognition is impossible due to our analyzers (for example, we do not have analyzers for capturing X-rays); - direct cognition is possible in principle, but impossible under the given conditions; - direct knowledge is possible, but not rational. Thinking makes it possible to understand the patterns of the material world, cause-and-effect relationships in nature and in socio-historical life, as well as the patterns of the human psyche. The source and criterion of mental reality, as well as the area for applying its results, is practice. In practice, thinking as a separate mental process does not exist; it is invisibly present in all other cognitive processes: perception, attention, imagination, memory, speech. The highest forms of these processes are necessarily associated with thinking, and the degree of its participation in these cognitive processes determines their level of development. The physiological basis of thinking is the reflex activity of the brain, those temporary nerve connections that are formed in the cerebral cortex. These connections arise under the influence of signals from the second system (speech), reflecting reality, but with mandatory reliance on signals from the first system (sensation, perception, ideas). In the process of thinking, both signaling systems are closely connected with each other. The second signaling system relies on the first and determines the continuous connection of the generalized reflection of reality, which is thinking, with sensory knowledge of the objective world through sensations, perceptions, and ideas. Thinking is the movement of ideas that reveals the essence of things. Its result is not an image, but a certain thought, an idea. A concept can be a specific result of thinking. In its development, thinking goes through two stages: - pre-conceptual; - conceptual. Pre-conceptual thinking is inherent in a child under five years of age. It is characterized by insensitivity to contradictions, syncretism (the tendency to connect everything with everything), transduction (the transition from the particular to the particular, bypassing the general), and the absence of the idea of ​​​​the conservation of quantity (S.L. Rubinstein). Conceptual thinking develops gradually from the child’s simple putting together of objects through the establishment of similarities and differences between them to conceptual thinking, which is formed by the age of 16-17. The human thought process is carried out in two main forms: 1) the formation and assimilation of concepts, judgments and conclusions; 2) solving mental problems. A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena, which is expressed in a word or group of words. For example, the concept of “person” includes such very significant features as articulate speech, labor activity and the production of tools. Concepts are usually distinguished: - by the degree of abstraction (concrete and abstract); — by volume (single and general). When, from all the characteristics of an object, a certain set of characteristics is identified that characterizes this particular object or a group of similar ones, we are dealing with a specific concept (for example, “city”, “furniture”). If, with the help of abstraction, a certain feature is highlighted in an object and this feature becomes the subject of study and, in addition, is considered as a special subject, then an abstract concept arises (for example, “justice”, “equality”). As a structural unit of thought, a judgment is built on a set of concepts. Judgment is a form of thinking that reflects the connections between objects and phenomena of reality and their properties and characteristics. For example, the Earth revolves around the Sun. Judgments are formed in two ways: directly, when they express what is perceived, and indirectly - through inferences or reasoning. Inference is a form of thinking in which a conclusion is drawn based on several judgments. For example, all the planets in the solar system revolve around the sun. Earth is a planet in the solar system, which means it revolves around the sun. Conclusions can be reached using the following methods: induction, deduction, analogy. Induction is a logical conclusion that reflects the direction of thought from the particular to the general. Deduction is a logical conclusion that reflects the direction of thought from the general to the specific. Analogy is a logical conclusion that reflects the direction of thought from particular to particular. Each act of thinking is a process of solving a problem that arises in the course of human cognition or practical activity. Depending on the style of mental activity of a person and the accessibility of the content of the problem for him, its solution can be carried out in various ways. The least desirable method is trial and error, in which there is usually neither a sufficiently clear understanding of the task nor the construction and purposeful testing of various hypotheses. This method, as a rule, does not lead to the accumulation of experience and does not serve as a condition for human mental development. Methods for solving a mental problem, which not only allow you to quickly find an answer, but are also conditions for a person’s mental development, can be named such as passive and active use of an algorithm, targeted transformation of the conditions of the problem, heuristic ways of solving the problem. The problem solving process consists of five stages: 1. Motivation (desire to solve the problem). 2. Analysis of the problem. 3. Search for a solution to the problem based on a known algorithm, on the basis of choosing the optimal option and on the basis of a fundamentally new solution, taking into account logical reasoning, analogies, heuristic and empirical techniques. The solution to a problem is often facilitated by insight. 4. Proof and justification of the correctness of the decision. 5. Implementation and verification of the solution, and, if necessary, its correction. Thinking, unlike other processes, occurs in accordance with a certain logic. In order to identify objective relationships and interconnections between objects and phenomena during the formation of concepts, judgments, conclusions and solving mental problems, a person resorts to mental operations - compares, analyzes, generalizes and classifies. Accordingly, the following logical operations can be distinguished in the structure of thinking: 1. Comparison - establishing relations of similarity and difference. The result of comparison, in addition, can be systematization or classification - the mental distribution of objects and phenomena into groups and subgroups. Often it acts as the primary form of theoretical and practical knowledge. 2. A deeper penetration into the essence of things requires the disclosure of their internal connections, patterns and essential properties. It is performed using analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the dissection of an object, mental or practical, into its constituent elements and their subsequent comparison. Synthesis is the construction of a whole from analytically given parts. Analysis and synthesis are usually carried out together and contribute to a deeper understanding of reality. “Analysis and synthesis,” wrote S.L. Rubinstein, “common denominators” of the entire cognitive process. They relate not only to abstract thinking, but also to sensory cognition and perception. In terms of sensory cognition, analysis is expressed in the identification of some sensory property of an object that had not been properly identified before. The cognitive significance of analysis is due to the fact that it isolates and emphasizes, highlights the essential.” Theoretical, practical, imaginative and abstract intelligence in its formation is associated with the improvement of thinking operations, primarily analysis, synthesis and generalization. 3. Abstraction is the isolation of any side or aspect of a phenomenon that in reality does not exist as an independent entity. Abstraction is performed for a more thorough study and, as a rule, on the basis of a previously performed analysis and synthesis. The result of all these operations is often the formation of concepts. Not only properties, but also actions, in particular methods of solving problems, can be abstracted. Their use and transfer to other conditions is possible only when the selected method of solution is realized and meaningful regardless of the specific task. 4. Generalization acts as a connection of the essential (abstraction) and connecting it with a class of objects and phenomena. The concept becomes one of the forms of mental generalization. 5. Concretization acts as an operation inverse to generalization. This is a distraction from general characteristics and emphasizing the particular, individual. It is defined, for example, in the fact that from the general definition of a concept a judgment is derived about the belonging of individual things and phenomena to a certain class. All these operations, according to S.L. Rubinstein [65], are different aspects of the main operation of thinking - mediation (that is, the disclosure of increasingly significant connections and relationships). Let's consider the types and types of thinking, and its individual characteristics. There are different approaches to defining types of thinking. • Based on the degree of development of the tasks being solved, thinking is distinguished: - discursive (inferential); - intuitive - instantaneous, characterized by minimal awareness. • Thinking is a kind of theoretical and practical activity that involves a system of actions and operations of an indicative, research, transformative and cognitive nature included in it. Thus, according to the nature of the problems being solved, thinking is divided into: - theoretical (conceptual) conceptual thinking - this is thinking, using which a person, in the process of solving a problem, turns to concepts, performs actions in the mind, without directly dealing with the experience gained with the help of organs feelings. He discusses and searches for a solution to a problem from beginning to end in his mind, using ready-made knowledge obtained by other people, expressed in conceptual form, judgments and inferences. Theoretical conceptual thinking is characteristic of scientific theoretical research. — theoretical figurative thinking differs from conceptual thinking in that the material that a person uses here to solve a problem is not concepts, judgments or inferences, but images. They are either directly retrieved from memory or creatively recreated by the imagination. This type of thinking is used by creative people who deal with images. In the course of solving mental problems, the corresponding images are mentally transmitted so that a person, as a result of manipulating them, can directly see the solution to the problem that interests him. Both types of thinking considered - theoretical conceptual and theoretical figurative - in reality, as a rule, coexist. They complement each other and reveal to a person different but interconnected aspects of existence. Theoretical conceptual thinking provides, although abstract, but at the same time the most accurate, generalized reflection of reality. Theoretical figurative thinking allows us to obtain a specific subjective perception of it, which is no less real than an objective conceptual one. Without one or another type of thinking, a person’s perception of reality would not be as deep and versatile, accurate and rich in various shades as it actually is. - practical, carried out on the basis of social experience and experiment. • Based on the content of the tasks to be solved, the following are distinguished: - objective-effective; - visually figurative; - verbal and logical thinking. Visual-effective thinking is based on the direct perception of objects, the real transformation of the situation in the process of actions with objects. The main condition for solving the problem in this case is the correct actions with the appropriate objects. This type of thinking is widely represented among people engaged in real production work, the result of which is the creation of a specific material product. Visual-figurative thinking is characterized by reliance on ideas and images. Its peculiarity is that the thought process in it is directly related to the thinking person’s perception of the surrounding reality and cannot take place without it. Thoughts are visual and figurative, a person is tied to reality, and the images themselves necessary for thinking are presented in his short-term and operative memory (in contrast, images for theoretical figurative thinking are extracted from long-term memory and then transformed). Its functions are related to the presentation of situations and changes in them that a person wants to obtain as a result of his activities that transform the situation. In contrast to visual-effective thinking, it is transformed only in terms of image (J. Piaget) [60]. This form of thinking is most fully and comprehensively represented among children of preschool and primary school age, and among adults - among people engaged in practical work. This type of thinking is quite developed in all people who often have to make decisions about the objects of their activity only by observing them, but without directly touching them. Verbal-logical thinking is carried out using logical operations with concepts. Within this type, the following types of thinking are distinguished: - theoretical; - practical; — analytical; - realistic; - autistic; - productive and reproductive; - involuntary and voluntary. Theoretical thinking is the knowledge of laws, rules, development of concepts and hypotheses. Practical thinking is the preparation of a transformation of reality (developing a goal, creating a plan, a diagram, testing hypotheses under conditions of severe time pressure). Analytical (logical) thinking is temporary, structural (stage-by-stage) and conscious in nature. Realistic thinking is aimed at the outside world and is governed by the laws of logic. Autistic thinking is associated with the realization of a person’s desires. Productive is reproducing thinking based on novelty in mental activity, and reproductive is reproducing thinking in a given image and likeness. Involuntary thinking involves the transformation of dream images, and voluntary thinking involves the purposeful solution of mental problems. Thinking has a pronounced individual character. The peculiarities of individual thinking are manifested in different relationships of types and forms, operations and procedures of mental activity. Thus, all of the listed types of thinking coexist in humans and can be represented in the same activity. However, depending on its nature and ultimate goals, one or another type of thinking dominates. For this reason they all differ. In terms of their degree of complexity, in terms of the demands they place on a person’s intellectual and other abilities, all of these types of thinking are not inferior to each other. The most important qualities of thinking are: • Independence of thinking - the ability to put forward new problems and find ways to solve them without resorting to the help of other people. • Initiative - a constant desire to seek and find ways and means to solve a problem. • depth - the ability to penetrate the essence of things and phenomena, understand the causes and deep patterns. • LATY - the ability to see problems multilaterally, in conjunction with other phenomena. • speed - the speed of solving problems, ease of reproduction of ideas. • originality - the ability to produce new ideas that are different from generally accepted. • Inquisitiveness is the need to always find the best solution to the tasks and problems. • Criticality is an objective assessment of objects and phenomena, the desire to question the hypothesis and solution. • Hasterness - the imperceptibility of aspects of a comprehensive study of the problem, snatching only individuals from it, a statement of inaccurate answers and judgments. Thinking is required-motivated and focused in nature. All operations of the thought process are caused by the needs, motives, interests of the individual, its goals and objectives. Of great importance are a person’s active desire to develop his intelligence and willingness to actively use him in useful activity. One of the difficult problems of learning at school and a university (especially technical) is the emphasis on the development of formal logical thinking to the detriment of figurative thinking. As a result, students and students become as if enslaved by their own formal-logical thinking: the desire for creativity, high spiritual requests seem completely unnecessary to some of them. It is necessary that both of these types of thinking develop harmoniously so that imaginative thinking does not turn out to be constrained by rationality, so that a person’s creative potential does not run out. According to D. Gilford, creative thinking has the following features [10]: - originality and unusual ideas, their intellectual novelty; - the ability to manifest semantic flexibility, that is, the ability to see an object from a new angle; - figurative adaptive flexibility, that is, the ability to change perception in order to see all aspects of the object hidden from observation; Semantic spontaneous flexibility when comparing various ideas. A serious obstacle to creative thinking is the commitment to old solutions: a tendency to conformism, fear of seeming stupid and funny, extravagant or aggressive; fear of mistakes and fear of criticism; overstated assessment of their own ideas; high level of anxiety; Mental and muscle tension. The conditions of successful solving creative problems are more frequent detection and application of new methods; successful overcoming of the prevailing stereotypes; the ability to take risk, freeing from fear and protective reactions, a combination of optimal motivation and the corresponding level of emotional excitement; The variety and multidirectionality of knowledge and skills that orient thinking to new approaches. Thinking is organically related to speech and language. Their occurrence and development marks the emergence of a new special form of reflection of reality and its management. It is important to distinguish the language from speech [15]. Language is a system of conditional symbols by which combinations of sounds are conveyed that have certain meaning and meaning for people. Speech is a set of pronounced or perceived sounds that have the same meaning and also meaning as the corresponding system of written characters. The language is one for all people who use it, speech is individual. In speech, the psychology of a single person or community of people is expressed for whom these features of speech are characteristic; The language reflects the psychology of the people for whom it is native, and not only now living people, but also previous generations. Speech without assimilation of a language is impossible, while language can exist and develop relatively independently of a person, according to laws that are not related to either his psychology or his behavior. The link between the language and the speech is the meaning of the word, since it is expressed both in the units of the language and in the units of speech. Speech performs a number of functions: - expresses the individual originality of human psychology; - acts as a carrier of information, memory and consciousness; - is a means of thinking; - acts as a regulator of human communication and his own behavior; - It is a means of managing the behavior of other people. The main function of speech in humans is that it is a tool of thinking. In a word as a concept, much more information is contained than can carry a simple combination of sounds. The fact that human thinking is inextricably linked with speech is primarily proved by psychophysiological studies of the participation of the voice apparatus in solving mental problems. In the most complex and intense moments of thinking, a person has increased activity of the vocal cords. Emotional-thought outbreaks, as a rule, cause an increase in speechwriting activity. In these cases, mental operations and speech -related reactions are performed in unity and interdependence. In speech thinking, the word and thought are constantly united. The main path of development of human speech is its inclusion in the management of all cognitive processes and interconnection. Speech is actively developing during training and education. The formation and development of speech occurs during three periods: - phonetic - to assimilate the sound appearance of the word (up to 2 years); - grammatical - to assimilate the structural laws of the organization of the statement (up to 3 years); - semantic - by the assimilation of conceptual assignment (up to 17 years). Consciously and unconsciously selected images of speech behavior are fixed and become familiar in the speech activity of a person. So the style of speech activity is born, characteristic of each person, which largely determines the internal and appearance of his personality. The professional activity of a person has a great influence on the style of speech. The artist is characterized by emotional and expressive speech, for the military-command-war, for the writer-figuratively narrative, for a business person-utilitarian and pragmatic, for the scientist and teacher-conceptual-explanatory. Purposefully engaged in the development of speech, a person increases its culture, increases his erudition, which means he enriches and develops his intelligence. One of the main tasks of psychology is to reveal in each person the reserves of thinking and speech that he does not use, to outline the ways of self -learning and self -development of his creative intelligence. Control questions 1. The essence of thinking as a cognitive process. Thinking as indirect knowledge. Definition of thinking. Thinking and perception. Thinking and speech. Emotions and thinking. 2. Two signaling systems of reflection of reality, their relationship in the process of thinking. 3. Doponical and conceptual thinking. 4. Formation of concepts. 5. Mental operations. Analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization. 6. Thinking in the process of solving problems. 7. Types of thinking. Practical and theoretical thinking. Visual-effective, visual-figurative and conceptual thinking. Surgical thinking. 8. Creative thinking and the problem of intuition. 9. Individual differences in thinking. Mental activity and individual cognitive style. 10. Speech as a cognitive process and speech as a means of communication. 11. General characteristics of speech as a communicative process. The role of the language in communication. 12. Speech functions. 13. The development of speech in ontogenesis.

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Functions and processes of thinking

Any type of thinking implements a certain set of processes that provide knowledge of the world around us.

:

• Comparison – comparison of objects and phenomena, highlighting their similarities and differences;
• Analysis – dividing an object or phenomenon into components;
• Synthesis is the opposite process to analysis, in which a whole is reconstructed from individual elements by establishing connections and relationships;
• Abstraction – highlighting one distinctive property of an object while ignoring all other, less significant ones;
• Generalization – discarding individual features to preserve and comprehend common ones, establishing significant connections.

At the same time, a small child needs to carry out these actions literally: disassemble, put objects, arrange them according to certain characteristics. It is enough for an adult to mentally imagine all these actions.

According to their functions, types of thinking in psychology are divided into reproductive, productive and creative. The first type is repetition of learned rules according to a given algorithm; This is how, for example, typical problems in textbooks are solved. Here, thought processes are aimed not at obtaining new knowledge, but at consolidating existing material. The second type is productive thinking, in which a person goes beyond existing knowledge and receives some new information; Moreover, they are new only for a given individual, but not for humanity. If the information obtained in this way is new for humanity, then the third type is involved here - creative thinking. In this case, thought processes acquire special complexity and structure.

Visual-figurative thinking is subject to a single algorithm. First, a person gives one judgment, then adds another to it, and on their basis makes a third judgment - a conclusion. It is the goal of thought processes.

Problem solving strategy

The book “The Psychology of Critical Thinking” provides strategies and descriptions of various recipes for identifying problems and finding solutions.

Planning is one of the most important thinking skills used to manage and regulate behavior. The plan provides a specific scheme, following which, step by step, a person approaches achieving the desired goal. At the same time, you should consider at least four ways to achieve the final goal, even if the goal seems clearly defined. This approach will increase the size of the problem space and provide better opportunities for finding the optimal solution.

Plans for solving problems may differ from each other, but most consist of five basic steps:

1. Awareness that the task really exists.
2. Formulation of the task, which includes the definition of the starting position and the final goal.
3. Development and evaluation of possible solutions.
4. Selecting the optimal solution.
5. Implementation of the chosen path to solve the problem in order to test it.

Types of thinking

Psychologists also distinguish different types of thinking. Usually each type divides people into two categories

:

• Logical - ethical
  . Representatives of the first type reason in terms of patterns, rules, and logical connections. People from the second type think based on feelings, experiences, and mood. For the former, communication is an exchange of information, and for the latter, it is an exchange of energy and emotions.
• Sensory – intuitive
  . The first type involves concrete and practical thinking, its representatives are good at noticing details; they reason from the point of view of current events, understand the current situation. The second type is global, philosophical thinking, while it is theoretical and divorced from the current situation.
• Decisive - judicious
  . People of the first type make decisions quickly and can act in a tense environment; They often make mistakes, but quickly correct the situation and learn from their mistakes. People of the second type take a long time to make decisions, they are used to acting in a calm and comfortable environment, and avoid unnecessary actions.
• Schizothymic - cyclothymic
  . Schizothymic people are characterized by subtlety of feelings, selfishness, power, and the desire to be better than others. In ordinary life they show some signs of schizophrenia. Cyclothymics are prone to manic-depressive syndrome; they are irresponsible, carefree, cheerful and sociable.
• "Changer" - "runner"
  . People of the first type are oriented towards various actions, each time they do something new. But “runners” prefer to do one thing until they complete the task; they are conservative in everyday life, carefully choosing friends, communication, hobbies, and purchases. Such people do not adapt well to sudden changes.
• Introverts - extroverts
  . This division is well known: the thoughts of the former are directed primarily at their inner world, and the thoughts of the latter are directed primarily at the external world. The former are sensitive, reserved and reasonable, while the latter are active, sociable and open.
• Internals - externals
  . People of the first type believe that everything that happens to them depends only on their personal qualities. They blame only themselves for all adversity, and rejoice in success as their achievements. People of the second type are sure that everything around them happens due to external circumstances: the actions of other people, chance, “fate,” etc.
• Positivism - negativism
  . People of the first type see in a situation primarily the qualities that it contains. They reason in affirmative constructions: “What is the weather now? “It’s good, it’s warm outside.” Negativists first notice in the same situations qualities that are absent in them, and reason with negative constructions: “What is the weather now? “Not bad, it’s not cold outside.”

In each of these types, mental activity has its own specifics. In particular, the ability to make true and false conclusions depends on this. However, overly pronounced representatives of either side tend to constantly make logical errors. These are, say, externals and internals. They often cannot objectively assess the situation and are guided by the simplest initial attitudes: “This happened because of me” or “This happened because of others,” when in fact the situation occurred due to a confluence of many circumstances. And it contains both part of the fault of the person himself and part of the fault of the environment.

Since we are talking about logical errors, it is worth considering a type of thinking that is initially erroneous. This is the so-called predicative thinking, which psychologists contrast with logical thinking. A predicate, or predicate, is what is said about an object, its quality or action that is relevant at the time of utterance. “Predicativism” is a type of reason when a person identifies dissimilar objects due to the same predicate.

Example: “Muslims do not eat pork. Vasya doesn't eat pork. Therefore, Vasya is a Muslim.” The error in reasoning is obvious. The correct reasoning in this case would be: “Muslims do not eat pork. Ahmet is a Muslim. Therefore, Akhmet does not eat pork.” The predicate is not an essential feature of the subject; it is relevant only at the time of utterance; therefore, the same predicative can be applied to many unrelated objects. Not only Muslims do not eat pork, but also vegetarians (they generally refuse meat), the poor (they simply do not have money for pork), glass bottles (these are inanimate objects, they cannot eat), etc.

Despite its initial fallibility, predicative thinking is common to many people. This is precisely the irrational type of reason on which political ideology and propaganda, religion, advertising and marketing are based. Examples of “predicativism” can easily be found in advertising slogans: “All successful people use this brand of shampoo!” — the consumer’s reaction is expected: “I use this brand of shampoo, therefore, I am a successful person.” Such a consumer will continue to use shampoo of this brand in order to maintain the status of a “successful person.” “Predictive people” are thus very easy to control, they are suggestible, and they can be easily deceived.

It was precisely this predicative type of reason that became the cause of the medieval “witch hunt,” when sorcerers and witches were found by external signs: red hair color, special clothing, voice, etc. (all these are signs that are insignificant for an object with the status of “witch.” "). It also gave rise to nationalist, racist theories, religious intolerance, and clashes between different youth subcultures. Nowadays, the predicative mind rules the so-called consumer society. Everyone wants to be like successful people, “cool”, rich and famous, while being similar purely in appearance. The “typical consumer” does not understand that Pavel Durov is successful not because he has a lot of money, but because he is a talented programmer, the developer of several large projects (and only because of this he has a lot of money). Predicative reason gives rise to such a phenomenon as envy, while the person himself does not understand what exactly he is envious of.

Natural planning model

David Allen's book “Getting Things Done” describes the natural planning model. To perform almost any action, your brain takes five steps:

1. defines purpose and principles;
2. visualizes the result;
3. brainstorms;
4. carries out the organization;
5. defines the following specific actions.

These five phases of project planning occur naturally no matter what you do during the day. This is how you create something new, be it a dinner at a restaurant, a nice evening, a new product or a new company (read more about the five steps).