Leading activity at an early age: concept, influence of choice on child development

Definition and age periodization

The term “leading activity” was introduced into psychology by Vygotsky. This concept began to be understood as such activity, the development of which leads to the formation of the main psychological new formations at a given stage of personality development. For example, for a preschooler, role-playing game turns out to be the most important. With the transition to the next stage of psychological development, the leading activity changes, as the child develops new needs.

On this basis, an age periodization was compiled. It outlines the following stages:

Infancy. Up to one year old, infants need emotional communication with adults.
Children 1-3 years old. The leading type of activity at an early age is actions with objects.
Preschool childhood. Role-playing games come to the fore for children aged 3-7 years.
Younger schoolchildren (from 7 to 11 years old) are involved in educational activities.
For teenagers from 11 to 15 years old, personal communication with friends becomes extremely important.
Boys and girls aged 15-18 are busy with professional self-determination.

The role of play in the mental development of a child.

The child does not live in an imaginary dream world, but in the company of people. Role-playing game is an activity. In which children take on certain functions of adults and, in specially created or playful, imaginary conditions, reproduce (or model) the activities of adults and the relationships between them. In such a game, all the mental qualities and personality traits of the child are most intensively formed. Gaming activity influences the formation of voluntary behavior and all mental processes - from elementary to the most complex. Performing a play role, the child submits to this task all his momentary, impulsive actions. Children focus better and remember more when playing than when given direct instructions from an adult. The conscious goal—to concentrate, to remember something, to restrain impulsive movement—is the earliest and easiest to recognize in a child’s play. If a child does not want to be attentive to what the upcoming game situation requires of him, if he does not remember the conditions of the game, then he is simply driven out by his peers. The gaming situation and actions in it have a constant impact on the development of the mental activity of a preschool child.

In the game, the child learns to act with a substitute object - he gives the substitute a new game name and acts in accordance with the name.

The substitute object becomes a support for thinking. Based on actions with objects, the child learns to think about a real object. Gradually, play activities with objects are reduced, the child learns to think about the object and act with it mentally. Thus, play contributes to a greater extent to the child’s transition to thinking in terms of ideas. At the same time, the child’s experience of gaming and especially real relationships in role-playing games forms the basis of a special property of thinking that allows one to take the point of view of other people, anticipate their future behavior and build one’s own behavior on this basis.

The game has a very great influence on the development of speech.

The game situation requires from each child included in it a certain level of development of verbal communication. If a child is not able to clearly express his wishes regarding the course of the game, he will be a burden to his peers. The need to communicate with peers stimulates the development of coherent speech. Role-playing is essential to imagination. In play activities, the child learns to replace objects with other objects and take on different roles. This ability forms the basis for the development of imagination. In the games of older children, substitute objects are no longer required, just as many play actions are no longer required. Children learn to imply objects and actions with them, and create new situations in their imagination.

For example: Six-year-old Ksyusha is looking at a photograph of a girl who has rested her finger on her cheek and is looking thoughtfully at a doll. The doll is planted near the toy sewing machine. Ksyusha says: “The girl thinks as if her doll is sewing.” With her explanation, little Ksyusha discovered her own way of playing. The influence of the game on the development of a child’s personality lies in the fact that through it he gets acquainted with the behavior and relationships of adults, who become a model for his own behavior, and in it he acquires basic communication skills and qualities necessary for establishing contact with peers. By capturing the child and forcing him to obey the rules contained in the role he has taken on, the game contributes to the development of feelings and volitional regulation of behavior.

Characteristics of leading activities

Leontyev and Elkonin were engaged in in-depth study of developmental psychology. They emphasize that at all stages of development, the child is involved in various types of activities (communication, work, study, etc.). Personal preference certainly plays a role too. However, the most significant developmental effect on children is exerted by activities leading for a given age. In the process of practicing it, the child:

mental processes are restructured;
new psychological characteristics develop;
other types of activities are being formed.

Let's consider the listed characteristics in more detail. Thus, the leading type of activity at an early age (1-3 years) is object-based activity. Toddlers learn to manipulate toys and real things around them. As a result of this, sensory standards and intelligence are formed in the form of visual and effective thinking. The child learns to place a small cube on a large one and insert a prism into the corresponding hole in the sorter.

By studying the purpose of objects, the child interacts with an adult. Gestures and emotional exclamations are no longer enough to convey information. This leads to the appearance of an important new formation - active speech.

The leading type of activity at an early age is the basis for the emergence of self-awareness. The child begins to separate the result of his actions with objects from the result of the actions of other family members. This is how the idea of oneself as a separate person is formed. All this leads to a crisis of 3 years.

In the course of manipulations with toys and objects, playful and productive (drawing, designing, modeling) types of activities are gradually formed. The prerequisites are being created for the transition to the next age stage.

28. Educational activity of an older teenager as preparation for future professional activity.

High school students, compared to teenagers, have an increased interest in learning. This is due to the fact that a new motivational structure of teaching is emerging. The leading place is occupied by motives related to self-determination and preparation for independent life. These motives acquire personal meaning and become effective. A high place in the motivational structure is occupied by such broad social motives as the desire to become a full-fledged member of society, to benefit people and the Motherland, and the conviction in the practical significance of science for society. The motives underlying the activity itself, as well as their interest in the content and process of learning, retain their strength. Along with an interest in facts, which is also typical for adolescence, older schoolchildren show interest in theoretical problems, methods of scientific research, and independent research activities to solve complex, including currently commercial, problems. Such cognitive motivation can apply to all subjects, to a cycle of any subjects, or to a separate subject. The selectivity of the cognitive interests of high school students is very often associated with life plans and professional intentions, which, in turn, contribute to the formation of educational interests and change attitudes towards educational activities. So, the motivational sphere of a high school student is characterized by a combination and interpenetration of broad social and cognitive motives contained in the educational process itself. At high school age, voluntary motivation comes to the fore, i.e. increasingly, the student is guided by a consciously set goal, his own intentions. High school students are better aware of their attitude to learning and the reasons that motivate them to study. Due to the high level of self-criticism, when analyzing the conditions that interfere with learning, they point to the manifestation of such negative character traits as lack of will, restlessness, inability to organize their time and self-control, and mood. The attitude towards school as a whole is characterized by greater consciousness and simultaneous “outgrowing” of school.

At high school age, a fairly strong connection is established between professional and educational interests. If a teenager’s educational interests determine the choice of profession, then the opposite is observed among older schoolchildren: the choice of profession contributes to the formation of educational interests, they begin to be interested in those subjects that they need in connection with their chosen profession. The choice of profession contributes to a change in attitude towards educational activities. All this creates favorable conditions for familiarizing students with the psychological characteristics of the profession, i.e. those requirements that are imposed on attention, observation, thinking, will, character and other psychological characteristics of a person in a particular profession.

High school students begin to view their studies as a necessary basis, a prerequisite for future professional activity. They show the greatest interest in those subjects that will be important in their chosen profession. The factor of academic performance in these subjects becomes significant (if high school students decide to continue their education after school).

The central new formation of the period of early adolescence becomes self-determination - professional and personal. A high school student decides who to be in his future life.

Needs of a baby 1-3 years old

A young child is entirely dependent on an adult. He cannot satisfy his needs on his own. In addition, the baby needs the love and attention of its parents and communication with them. But at the same time, the baby can do a lot himself. He walks confidently and is able to pick up things he couldn’t reach before. He develops a desire for independence.

The contradiction that has arisen is resolved through the leading type of activity at an early age. Briefly, it can be described as the practical joint interaction of a baby and an adult with objects.

Babies begin to explore toys and things at about 6 months. They shake the rattle, knock it, press buttons, feel it with their hands and lick it. These actions are aimed at studying the physical properties of an object. At an early age, the child is more interested in its purpose. However, a baby cannot learn the correct actions with objects without the help of an adult. He does not have enough experience to independently understand the purpose of a pencil, spoon or comb. A leading activity at an early age is the opportunity to partner with mom or dad.

An adult acts as a mentor who shows socially developed methods of action, but does not carry them out for a fee. A situation of business communication is created. The baby, on the one hand, receives the necessary attention, and on the other, learns to act independently.

Fourth month of life

At the fourth month, the baby can already hold his head independently, can gesture well with his legs and arms, examines objects around him, and rolls over from his back to his tummy. At this time, he not only looks at objects, but also sees them. Perceives voices and sounds around. Feels the need for her mother not only to study herself, but also everything around her.

The parent must monitor the baby’s daily routine and adjust it if necessary. At 3-4 months, the average baby needs 15 hours of sleep. 10 hours are at night, and the rest are distributed evenly throughout the day.

If adults have decided that the child should sleep only in his own bed, then he should only be placed there, thereby instilling discipline and habit.

Development of subject activity

A small child does not immediately understand the purpose of toys and things around him. It all starts with the first phase of development of the leading type of activity. At an early age, these are any actions with objects arising from their properties. Pencils can be rolled, thrown, licked, or tapped like drumsticks. Children act as experimenters.

Then comes the second phase, when the child learns the true purpose of the object and uses it in the usual way. The kid takes a pencil when he wants to draw. And finally, the turn of the third phase comes. The child masters the free use of an object, while constantly remembering its main function. So, playing doctor, the baby can use a pencil instead of a thermometer.

What's most important right now?

The most important need of a baby is the need for security, safety, and stability. It is extremely important to satisfy her as much as possible. After all, if a child does not feel safe from infancy, he will forget how to trust the world around him for the rest of his life and will distance himself from it. May become withdrawn or socially hostile. If a child experiences a lack of parental love, care, affection, attention to his desires, if he is abused in the family, he will grow up embittered and alienated.

Indeed, at this age, for a child, the world and the family have the same structure: everything that happens in the family happens in the world. That is why, if a child experiences a divorce from his parents at an early age, for him not only does the family collapse, but the whole world collapses.

In infancy, a child learns to communicate with others and expects help and support from them. He learns to trust others, forms his first attachments: first, looking for a response from any person, then learning to separate his own and others, then choosing the closest and most significant people as objects of his love.

It is during this period that a feeling of psychological comfort and harmony is much more important than satisfying natural needs. Indeed, with the help of this feeling, the child learns to perceive himself as a human being - a thinking, rational, spiritual being.

Types of actions with objects

The leading type of activity in early childhood is the basis for the intellectual, speech and psychological development of the baby. Two types of actions with objects are of greatest importance: correlative and instrumental.

The goal of the former is to bring objects or their parts into predetermined spatial relationships. The child assembles a nesting doll, selects lids for jars, and puts parts into the holes. In doing so, he must take into account the sizes, shapes or colors of objects. It is impossible to master correlative actions without contact with an adult. The baby independently strings the rings of the pyramid in any order; he has not formed a reference pattern and the need to follow it. Playing together with your mother makes you want to assemble the toy correctly.

Tool actions suggest that the baby learns to handle an object in the way that is accepted in society. He must adapt his movements to the characteristic features of the thing (digging with a shovel, painting with a brush, wiping with a towel). Thus, the leading activity of a young child leads to the formation of elementary logic. Initially, the baby carries the spoon to his mouth along the shortest path, like a cookie or cracker. But over time, he realizes that this is how the soup is spilled. The spoon must be kept horizontal at all times. First, it is lifted up above the plate, and then brought to the lips.

6.1. Social development situation
6.2. Development of the child’s cognitive sphere
6.3. Personal formations
6.4. Crisis of three years
6.5. The leading activity in early childhood

Topic 6. EARLY CHILDHOOD (FROM 1 YEAR TO 3 YEARS)

6.1. Social development situation

Early childhood

– this is a period from 1 year to 3 years. At this age, changes occur in personal development, the cognitive sphere, and the social situation of development.

Neoplasms of infancy lead to changes in the relationship between the child and the adult, which in turn leads to the formation of a new social situation of development, which consists in the emergence of joint activities of the child and the adult,

and also in the fact that this activity becomes
substantive.
The essence of joint activity is the assimilation of socially developed ways of using objects, that is, an adult teaches the child how to properly use surrounding objects, and also explains what they are needed for and where they should be used. The social situation of a child’s development at this age looks like this: “Child – OBJECT – Adult.” As can be seen from this triad, the subject is important for the child. You can verify this by watching how a child plays: he constantly looks at the object he is passionate about, be it a car, a chair, a doll, a spoon, etc. There may be a feeling that he does not need anything else and no one needed, his attention is focused only on the object of passion. But this is not so, because without an adult a child cannot master human ways of using objects.

Joint activity becomes objective, because the motive of this activity lies in the object itself and the method of its use. Communication at this age takes the form of organizing objective activities. In other words, it occurs at the moment of explaining the correct use of a particular item. Communication develops intensively and becomes verbal, because mastering objects using only emotional coloring cannot be effective.

6.2. Development of the child’s cognitive sphere

At this age, perception, thinking, memory, and speech develop. This process is characterized by the verbalization of cognitive processes and the emergence of their arbitrariness.

Development of perception

is determined by three parameters:
perceptual actions
(the integrity of the perceived object),
sensory standards
(the emergence of sensation standards: sound, light, taste, tactile, olfactory) and
correlation actions.
In other words, the process of perception consists in identifying the most characteristic qualities, signs, and properties of a given object or situation; drawing up a certain image based on them; correlation of these standard images with objects of the surrounding world. This is how the child learns to divide objects into classes: dolls, cars, balls, spoons, etc.

From one year on, the process of learning about the world around us begins to actively develop. A child aged from one to two years uses various options to perform the same action, and from one and a half to two years he has the ability to solve a problem by guessing (insight), i.e. the child suddenly finds a solution to this problem, avoiding trial and error method.

From the second year of life, the child’s perception changes. Having learned to influence one object on another, he is able to foresee the outcome of a situation, for example, the possibility of pulling a ball through a hole, moving one object with the help of another, etc. The child can distinguish shapes such as circle, oval, square, rectangle, triangle, polygon; colors – red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple.

Thanks to the development of perception, by the end of early childhood the child begins to develop mental activity. This is expressed in the emergence of the ability to generalize, transfer the experience gained from initial conditions to new ones, in establishing connections between objects through experimentation, memorizing them and using them in solving problems. A one and a half year old child can predict and indicate the direction of movement of an object, the location of a familiar object, and overcome obstacles on the way to achieving the desired goal. And after a year and a half, the reaction of choosing an object appears based on the most striking and simple characteristics: shape and color.

In early childhood, the development of thinking continues,

which from the visual-effective gradually turns into the visual-figurative, i.e. actions with material objects are replaced by actions with images. The internal development of thinking proceeds in this way: intellectual operations develop and concepts are formed.

Visual and effective thinking appears by the end of the first year of life and remains dominant until 3.5–4 years. At first, the child can abstract and highlight shape and color, so when grouping objects, he first of all pays attention to the size and color of the object. At the age of about two years, he identifies objects based on essential and non-essential features. At 2.5 years old, a child identifies objects according to essential characteristics: color, shape, size.

A feature of thinking in early childhood is syncretism. Syncretism

means incomprehension: a child, solving a problem, does not identify individual parameters in it, perceiving the situation as a holistic picture. The role of the adult in this case is to isolate and analyze individual details from the situation, from which the child will then identify the main and minor ones.

Visual-figurative thinking appears at 2.5–3 years and remains dominant until 6–6.5 years. The formation of this thinking is associated with the formation of elementary self-awareness and the beginning of the development of the ability for voluntary self-regulation, accompanied by a developed imagination.

Memory development.

By the age of two, a child develops working memory. Easy logic and thematic games are available to him, he can draw up an action plan for a short period of time, and does not forget the goal set a few minutes ago.

Speech development.

By the age of one year, a child can already call things by their proper names. He has a wealth of experience in understanding the world around him, he has formed an idea of \u200b\u200bparents, food, the environment, toys. And yet, of the many qualities contained in a word as a concept, the child first assimilates only individual properties characteristic of the object with which this word was initially associated in his perception.

A one-year-old child reacts to words as to the situation as a whole. The word turns out to be associated with the situation, and not with the object representing it. The child carefully observes the facial expressions and gestures of the speaking adult, catching from them the meaning of what is being said.

From 11 months, the transition from pre-phonemic to phonemic speech and the formation of phonemic hearing begins, which ends by the age of two, when the child can distinguish words that differ from each other by one phoneme. The transition from prephonemic to phonemic speech lasts 3 years and ends in the fourth year of life. At the age of 3, the child learns to correctly use cases, first begins to use one-word sentences, then, at the age of 1.5 to 2.5 years, he can combine words, combining them into two-three-word phrases or sentences of two words, where there is also a subject and predicate. Then, thanks to the development of the grammatical structure of speech, he masters all cases and is able to construct complex sentences with the help of function words. At the same time, conscious control over the correct pronunciation of speech utterances arises.

After 1.5 years, activity in independent speech and verbal communication is noted. The child begins to ask himself the names of objects or phenomena that interest him. First, he uses the language of gestures, facial expressions and pantomimes or a pointing gesture, and then a question expressed in verbal form is added to the gesture. The child learns to control the behavior of other people using speech. But a child aged 2.5 to 3 years cannot follow the instructions of adults, especially when it is necessary to choose one action from several; he will be able to make this choice only when he is closer to 4 years old.

During the second year of life, the child begins to assimilate the verbal designation of surrounding objects, and then the names of adults, the names of toys, and only then - parts of the body, i.e., nouns, and by the age of two, with normal development, he understands the meaning of almost all words related to the surrounding reality . This is facilitated by the development of semantic function

children's speech, i.e. determining the meaning of a word, its differentiation, clarification and assignment to words of generalized meanings that are associated with them in the language.

By the age of 2, children have a clear understanding of the purpose of the household and personal hygiene items around them. They understand general questions that require a yes or no answer.

At about 3 years old, the child begins to listen carefully to what adults are talking about and loves having stories, fairy tales, and poems read to him.

By the age of 1.5 years, a child learns from 30 to 100 words, but rarely uses them. By the age of 2 he knows 300 words, and by 3 – 1200–1500 words.

The following stages have been identified in the development of speech:

1) syllables (instead of words);

2) words-sentences;

3) two-word sentences (for example, “mom here”);

4) sentences of three or more words;

5) correct speech (grammatically consistent sentences).

The main trends in the development of speech of a young child are as follows.

• Passive speech is ahead of active speech in development.

• The child discovers that every object has its own name.

• At the border between the 2nd and 3rd years of life, the child intuitively “discovers” that the words in a sentence are related to each other.

• There is a transition from the polysemy of children's words to the first functional generalizations built on the basis of practical actions.

• Phonemic hearing is ahead of the development of articulation. The child first learns to listen to speech correctly and then to speak correctly.

• Mastery of the syntactic structure of the language is carried out.

• The functions of speech develop, a transition occurs from the indicative (indicative) to the nominative (denoting) functions of speech.

6.3. Personal formations

In early childhood, along with the development of the cognitive sphere, personal development also occurs. First of all, personal socialization

child, because, observing adults, he tries to imitate them: to do as they do, to behave as they behave in certain situations. The process of imitation occurs through communication and interaction between an adult and a child. Thus, observing people’s behavior and imitating them becomes one of the main sources of a child’s personal socialization. The sense of attachment, which is formed in a child by the end of the first year of life and continues to develop in early childhood, also plays an important role in the development of personality. The reason for attachment may lie in the fact that adults satisfy the child’s basic needs, reduce their anxiety, provide safe living conditions and active study of the surrounding reality, and form the basis for normal relationships with people in adulthood.

When the mother is close to the child, he is more active and inclined to explore the environment. A positive assessment of a child’s actions and personal qualities by a parent creates in him a sense of self-confidence, faith in his abilities and capabilities. If a child is attached to his parents and they pay him the same, then he is more obedient and disciplined. If parents are friendly, attentive and strive to satisfy the child’s needs, then he develops a personal, personal attachment.

If a child is deprived of constant positive emotional contact with his mother or loved ones, then he will subsequently have problems establishing normal, trusting relationships with others.

develops in early childhood .

The development of self-awareness will lead to the formation
of self-esteem
(for more details on this, see 3.6).
The development of independence is noted .
The phrase “I myself” speaks best about its manifestation. The child no longer always wants to be helped. Having mastered walking, he finds barriers and obstacles for himself and tries to overcome them. All this gives the child pleasure and indicates that he is beginning to develop qualities such as willpower, perseverance, and determination.

At this age, many children become disobedient. When they are told that they cannot do this, they continue to do it their own way. This often happens due to children’s desire to understand the world around them as quickly as possible.

From the age of 1.5 years, the child begins to realize his capabilities and his own personality traits. A two-year-old child understands that he can influence people and achieve the desired goal.

Children begin to develop empathy

– understanding the emotional state of another person. You can observe how a one and a half year old child strives to console an upset person: he hugs him, kisses him, gives him a toy, etc.

The child develops a need to achieve success.

This need is formed in stages. First, the child begins to realize his successes and failures, then he can explain the successes and failures of other people, then he acquires the ability to distinguish tasks by degree of difficulty and assess the degree of development of his own skills necessary to complete a given task, and finally he can evaluate his own abilities and efforts. efforts.

Table 5
Main achievements in the mental development of a child from 1 to 3 years old
In table. 5 shows the achievements of the child’s mental development with which he approaches the crisis of three years.

6.4. Crisis of three years

The three-year crisis is characterized by the fact that personal changes occurring in the child lead to changes in his relationships with adults. This crisis arises because the child begins to separate himself from other people, is aware of his capabilities, and feels himself a source of will. He begins to compare himself with adults, and he involuntarily has a desire to perform the same actions as them, for example: “When I grow up, I will brush my teeth myself.”

At this age, the following traits appear: negativism, stubbornness, devaluation, obstinacy, self-will, protest-rebellion, despotism. These characteristics were described by L.S. Vygotsky. He believed that the emergence of such reactions contributes to the emergence of a need for respect and recognition.

Negativism

manifests itself in a negative reaction to an adult’s demand or request, and not to the action itself. For example, a child ignores the demands of one family member or teacher, while obeying others. It was also noted that negativism mainly manifests itself in relationships with relatives, and not with strangers. Perhaps subconsciously the child feels that such behavior towards his family will not cause him serious harm. Therefore, we must remember that negativism and disobedience are two different things.

Another characteristic of the three-year crisis is stubbornness.

Its reason is not the child’s desire to get what he wants or demand at any cost, but that his opinion is taken into account. It doesn’t matter to the child whether he gets this thing or not, he needs to establish himself in his “adulthood”, in the fact that his opinion also means something. Therefore, a stubborn child will insist on his own even if he does not really need this thing.

The next characteristic is depreciation

– is inherent in all crises. It manifests itself in the fact that all habits and values that were previously dear begin to depreciate. For example, a child may throw and even break a previously beloved toy, refuse to comply with previously accepted rules of behavior, now considering them unreasonable, etc.

Obstinacy

is directed against accepted norms of behavior in the family and is similar to negativism and stubbornness. For example, if it is customary in the family to have dinner together, then the child begins to refuse to eat at this particular time, and then he develops an appetite.

Self-will

is expressed in the child’s desire to do everything himself.
If in infancy he strived for physical independence, now his behavior is aimed at independence of intentions and plans. This behavior manifests itself not only in the actions offered to adults, for example: “Do it yourself,” “You are already big and can do it,” etc., but also in the persistent desire to do this and not otherwise. This feeling captures the child to such an extent that he openly contrasts his desires with the expectations of others. The manifestation of independence is reflected in relationships with adults. When a child realizes that he can do something on his own,
he does not need adult help. They must understand this and try to avoid negative statements on this matter, not criticize the child, but allow him to show independence.

Protest riot

is expressed in frequent quarrels between children and parents. According to L.S. Vygotsky, “the child is at war with others, in constant conflict with them” (Vygotsky L.S., 1991).

Manifestations of despotism

are as follows: the child begins to dictate to everyone around him how to behave, and strives to be listened to and acted as he says. Such behavior can occur when the child is alone in the family or the last one.

6.5. The leading activity in early childhood

, objective activity becomes dominant

which affects both mental development and communication with adults.

In infancy, activity is manipulative in nature: the child can repeat actions shown to adults, transfer the learned action to another object, and master some of his own actions. But when manipulating, the child uses only the external properties and relationships of objects. In early childhood, objects become for the child not just an object, but a thing that has a specific purpose and a specific way of use. The child tries to master more and more new actions of the subject, and the role of the adult is to mentor, cooperate, and help in difficult situations.

By manipulating an object at the end of infancy and at the beginning of early childhood, the child will never be able to understand its functions. For example, he can open and close a cabinet door an infinite number of times, but will never understand its functional purpose. Only an adult can explain why this or that thing is needed.

Mastering the purpose of an object does not guarantee that the child will use it only for its intended purpose, but what is important is that he will know how, when and where it should be done. For example, having learned that pencils are needed for writing and drawing, a child can nevertheless roll them around the table or build something with them.

At first, the action and the object are closely related in the child’s understanding. An example of this is the following fact: he cannot comb his hair with a stick or drink from a cube. But over time, the subject is separated from the action.

There are three phases in the development of the connection between an action and an object:

1) any actions can be performed with the object;

2) the item is used only for its intended purpose;

3) free use of an object is possible, but only if its true purpose is known.

D.B. Elkonin identified two directions for the development of substantive activity:

1. Development of action from joint with an adult to independent execution.

The path of development of action from joint to independent was studied by I.A. Sokolyansky and A.I. Meshcheryakov. They showed that at first the orientation, execution and evaluation of the action are under the control of the adult. This manifests itself, for example, in the fact that an adult takes the child’s hands and performs actions with them. Then a partial or joint action is performed, i.e. the adult begins it, and the child continues. Then the action is performed on the basis of demonstration and, finally, on the basis of verbal instructions.

2. Development of means and methods of orienting the child in the context of the action. It goes through several stages. The first stage consists of:

a) in the non-specific use of tools (manipulation of objects);

b) using an object when the methods of its use have not yet been formed, for example, a child understands what a spoon is for, but when eating he takes it very low;

c) mastering a specific method of use.

The second stage occurs when the child begins to perform actions in an inadequate situation. In other words, the action is transferred from one object to another, for example, a child, having learned to drink from a mug, drinks from a glass. There is also a transfer of action according to the situation, for example, having learned to put on shoes, the child tries to pull them on the ball.

The third stage is accompanied by the emergence of game action. Here the adult does not tell the child what to do, how to play or use an object.

Gradually, the child begins to correlate the properties of objects with operations, that is, he learns to determine what an object can best do, which operations are most suitable for a specific object.

The stages of formation of such fastenings were identified by P.Ya. Galperin. He believed that at the first stage the child varies his actions based not on the properties of the tool with which he wants to get the object he needs, but on the properties of the object itself. He called this stage “targeted trials.” At the second stage - “lying in wait” - the child finds an effective way of acting with an object and tries to repeat it. At the third stage - the “stage of obsessive intervention” - he tries to reproduce an effective method of influence and master it, at the fourth stage he discovers ways to regulate and change the action, taking into account the conditions in which it will have to be performed.

Correlative and instrumental actions are significant for mental development.

Correlating Actions

consist of bringing several objects into certain spatial interactions - for example, folding pyramids from rings, using collapsible toys, etc.

Gun actions

- these are actions in which one object is used to influence other objects. The child masters instrumental actions in the process of learning under the guidance of an adult.

It was found that instrumental actions can be an indicator of the intellectual development of children, and subject actions indicate the degree of their learning and the breadth of contacts with adults.

Towards the end of early childhood, play and productive activities arise in object-tool activity.

Table of contents

Adult as a model

Elkonin studied the objective activities of children in detail. He paid special attention to instrumental actions, since through their development the socialization of the child occurs. In the development of the leading type of activity at an early age, according to Elkonin, two directions can be distinguished.

The first is the gradual mastery of one or another action with the help of an adult. First, the mother takes the baby's hands and helps him make the required movements. Then he is allowed to do some of the actions on his own. Subsequently, showing or verbal instructions from the parents is enough for the baby.

Without a model of action demonstrated by an adult, learning is impossible. Elkonin noted the following patterns:

A child learns to manipulate objects when an adult encourages him to do so by influencing his emotions. The main thing for the baby is to do something together with mom or dad, to imitate them. When an adult leaves the game, it can continue for a long time.
The baby initially grasps the general meaning of the action, and then its technical side is improved. So, a one-year-old child runs a comb over his hair without even touching it.
What is important for a child is not the final result, but the correct reproduction of the actions shown to adults. The pattern can be repeated after numerous attempts.
By performing actions, the baby mentally identifies himself with an adult.
Parents play several roles at once. They are role models, mentors, supervisors, and a source of moral support at the same time.

Features of education in the fifth month

The child not only hums, but also makes clearly distinguishable sounds. Seeing a toy nearby, he can touch it and also hold it firmly in his hands. He continues to perceive all things by taste and tactile sensations.

The child’s muscles and limbs have already become stronger, which gives him the opportunity to rise on his hands, stretch his legs and even get on all fours. It is important for the parent to continue to maintain as much physical contact with the infant as possible.

It is important to carry the child in your arms, talk to him often, respond to his sounds, and smile back. It will also be good to develop a sense of rhythm in the baby; for this, massage and gymnastics with counting and dancing to music should be done.

The child is very happy when he sees that he is happy. He shows emotions in different ways: he is capricious and cries to show discomfort, or he laughs and plays when he is having fun. It is important to remember that when crying loudly, the child is not manipulating his parents, but is simply showing his needs or dissatisfaction, since he does not yet know how to do this in any other way.

Second direction along Elkonin

Another direction in the scientist’s research is the study of the characteristics of children’s orientation in the area of mastered action. Elkonin examined in detail the three stages of formation of the leading type of activity at an early age. The psychology of the child is clearly visible at each stage, and the changes occurring in it are studied.

Thus, at the beginning of the first stage, the child manipulates an object, unaware of its purpose. Gradually he learns to perform the correct actions with it, but practical skills are not yet sufficiently developed. The baby understands that the spoon must be brought to the mouth, but cannot hold it horizontally. At the end of this stage, the child masters a specific way of acting with objects. A hard connection is established in his head. Children cannot use the studied item for other operations (drink from a cube, wipe the table with a handkerchief).

At the second stage of development, the child begins to reproduce mastered actions in non-standard situations. Transfer can be carried out to other objects (you can drink not only from a cup, but also from a glass) and situations (trying to dress a cat).

The third stage is marked by the appearance of game action. The child independently decides which operations are suitable for objects. He masters substitution. Now the cube can be an iron, a piece of bread, or soap. The candy will be replaced by a plasticine ball or pebble. In fact, kids are introduced to the first elementary symbols. This creates the preconditions for the development of imagination.

Parenting in the first month of life

You should start training your baby from a very early age. It is important to remember that before one year, all the foundations for its further development are laid. Already at this stage, the child understands and perceives a lot: he reacts to sounds around him, determines the tone of conversation, melodies, distinguishes light from darkness, recognizes by smell that his mother is somewhere nearby, and feels all touches.

The child has well-developed innate reflexes, for example, he looks for his mother’s breast, sucks it, flinches from too loud or sudden sounds, walks with his legs, if you lift him and hold him in an upright position, grabs with his hands.

During this period of time, education should consist of simple methods. Develop color vision by placing bright rattle toys at a distance of about 30 centimeters from the child’s eyes. Teach gaze fixation by moving a bright toy in front of the child’s eyes at a distance of 20 centimeters, and then, after waiting for the gaze to fixate on it, move it to the other side and in the vertical direction. Form the baby's hearing by talking to him in a quiet and calm voice, turning on music and rattling rattles.

Experts also recommend carrying your child around the house, telling him about the objects around him and sharing interesting stories.

Emergence of other activities

Through manipulations with objects, the baby becomes involved in new relationships. The leading activity of a young child creates the prerequisites for the emergence of:

Labor activity. The baby is interested in using a broom, wiping dust with a rag, watering flowers with a watering can, and making cookies from dough. Not all parents are ready to patiently teach their child these skills. If a child is removed from household chores, his self-esteem decreases and his motivation to work disappears.
Gaming activity. First, the child manipulates the toys, repeating the movements of the mother: feeding the bear, rocking the doll. He doesn’t depict anything yet, but simply copies. Gradually the imagination develops. By the age of 3, children are able to reproduce the real actions of adults with the help of toys and substitute objects. At the same time, during the game the child comes to an awareness of the role he plays (cook, mother, hairdresser, driver).
Productive activities (drawing, modeling). Initially, the baby simply explores the material, learns to scribble with a pencil, without trying to depict something meaningful. The turning point comes when he begins to guess real objects behind random shapes and lines. The kid first applies the strokes, and then joyfully looks for what happened. With the participation of an adult, he develops a desire to deliberately depict some light images.

Second month of life

Communication is the leading activity of infancy. Physical contact with parents is additionally added to communication. The child needs to be given a feeling of security and closeness, carried in his arms, massaged, smiling and trying to evoke a response.

In the second month of life, parental education continues to focus on the development of vision and hearing. Objects for study are already placed at a distance of 30 to 50 centimeters. The sounds to learn become multifaceted.

In order to develop tactile sensitivity, the baby needs to be given toys and objects of different shapes. So that the child can hold his head independently in the future without any problems, they begin to roll a bright ball in front of him. The baby will watch him closely, thereby tensing his neck muscles.

Is everything so clear?

Most psychologists and teachers recognize the existence of a single leading type of activity at an early age. However, there are also opponents to this theory. They protest against generalization at any age. Leites pointed out that the concept does not take into account the personality of a particular child, his individual characteristics. Rubinstein, without denying the importance of games, named another important activity that determines the development of any preschooler: household activities. Imperceptibly, through everyday activities, the baby learns the rules of behavior and learns to communicate with peers.

Petrovsky doubted that it was possible to determine the leading type of activity of children. At an early age, they are especially susceptible to the influence of their environment. Therefore, different children may lead different types of activities depending on the level of development and social situation.

Early childhood

Period – Infancy (from 2 to 12 months)

Current social situation: at this age stage, the child has already been separated from his own mother in the physical sense, but at the same time has a close and inextricable psychological connection and dependence on her. ("We")
Leading activities: affective communication and interaction with significant others, establishing contact and forming primary trust.
Crises:

0-2 months – change in the external developmental situation, due to physiological separation from the mother.
1 year – moving away from “We” to greater independence

Neoplasms: restructuring and adaptation of the body to a different type of life activity, maturation of individual psychological phenomena.

Period: Early childhood (from 1 to 3 years)

Current social situation: gaining a certain autonomy and complete freedom of movement, a certain independence, there is a gradual departure from “We”.
Leading activity: manipulation of tools and objects, formation of the child’s speech skills.
A crisis:

3 years - due to the child’s growing independence and independence, his demands also sharply increase, which he can so far only express in a despotic manner and capricious behavior, negativism in relation to various actions and decisions of elders.

New developments – the formation of a child’s self-awareness (the pronoun “I” appears in conversations), the desire for independence and independence from any adults, mastery of activities reminiscent of “adults”.

Raising a harmonious personality

Petrovsky insisted that the comprehensive development of a child cannot be achieved through one leading type of activity. At an early age, it is important to introduce the child to various spheres of human activity. Here is their list:

Object activity with toys. They can be composite (construction set, matryoshka, puzzle) or movable (spinning top, tumbler, machine).
Experimenting with sand, dough, water and other substances.
Communication with adults.
Games in a group of peers under the supervision and guidance of adults.
Self-service, formation of instrumental actions (eating with a spoon, sweeping with a broom, digging with a dustpan).
Fine art activities (appliqués, simple crafts, modeling, drawing).
Getting to know music through listening, singing, dancing. Kids are very fond of musical toys, many like classical works.
Perception of poems, fairy tales, looking at illustrations in books.
Physical activity (gymnastics, outdoor games, cycling, running bike, etc.)

The leading type of activity at an early age is a controversial concept. However, it is impossible to deny the fact that babies’ attention is directed to objects. It is no coincidence that pots, brooms, and daddy’s tools become favorite toys. The task of parents is to encourage children’s independence and patiently teach them the correct actions with objects. The intellectual and psychological development of your beloved child depends on this.

End of infancy

By the end of the first year, the baby learns to separate himself from the surrounding society, to feel independent (after all, he now knows how to move and express himself, make decisions and achieve goals).

By this time, the child seems to be left without a control system: biological rhythms no longer control him, and new motor and speech skills have not yet been fully mastered as levers for freely controlling his behavior and orientation in the world around him.

Thus, by the end of the first year of life, the baby is going through a crisis stage, which will help him move to a new level of development, when speech and the ability to move independently will be the leading means of regulating activity. During this period, the child goes through a process of reverse development. It is characterized by affective emotions, disruption of biological processes and needs (sleep, nutrition), moodiness, tearfulness, touchiness, willfulness, and disobedience.

Having emerged from this crisis, the child will enter a new age period - early childhood. And how the crisis itself will proceed - its severity and duration - largely depends on the correct behavior of the parents. But this is perhaps a topic for another discussion.