Article “The concept of “reflex” in psychology: historical analysis, “Psychological Journal””

See also here: General principles of the structure of the nervous system and its functions

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Introduction (relevance)

The concept of reflex is very important in physiology. Reflex is the main mode of activity of the nervous system , so it is necessarily part of the basic knowledge about nervous activity. This concept explains the automated work of the body to adapt to influences on it from the external or internal environment.

With the help of reflexes, the nervous system coordinates the activities of the body with signals coming from the surrounding external and internal environment.

Reflex (reflection) is the basic principle and way of working of the nervous system. A more general concept is reactivity . These concepts imply that the reason for the behavioral activity of the organism lies not in the psyche, but outside the psyche , outside the nervous system, and is triggered by signals external to the psyche and the nervous system - stimuli. Also implied is determinism , i.e. predetermination of behavior due to the cause-and-effect relationship between the stimulus and the body’s response to it.

The reflex embodies the principle of anticipatory regulation - this is a mechanism in which regulatory processes are launched even before the corresponding parameter begins to change, based on information entering the control nerve center and signaling a possible change in this parameter. Figuratively, we can say that reflexes allow you to “get ahead of events”, “get ahead of time”.

The concepts of “reflex” and “reflex arc” are key topics in the field of physiology of the nervous system, and they must be understood to a level of complete understanding and clarity in order to understand many other topics and branches of physiology.

Definition of the concept

A simple definition of the concept “reflex”

A reflex is a response. You can give such a definition to a reflex, but after that it is necessary to name 6 important criteria (signs) of a reflex that characterize it. They are listed below in the full definition of the concept of reflex.

A reflex is a stereotypical automated adaptive response to a stimulus (irritant).

A reflex in a general broad sense is a secondary phenomenon caused by another phenomenon (primary), i.e. reflection, consequence in relation to something original. In physiology, a reflex is response to an incoming signal, the source of which is outside the psyche, when the triggering signal (stimulus) is a primary phenomenon, and the reaction to it is a secondary, response.

A complete definition of the concept of “reflex”

A reflex is the body’s response to irritation of receptors, carried out through excitation of the nervous system and having adaptive significance. © 2010-2021 Sazonov V.F. © 2016-2021 kineziolog.su.

This definition contains several important features of a reflex: 1) it is a response and not spontaneous, 2) irritation , without which the reflex does not occur, 3) special sensory receptors that convert irritation, turning it into excitement, 4) into the basis for the implementation of the reflex is nervous excitation , 5) the participation of the nervous system to transform the initial sensory excitation into an effector one, which controls the effectors that carry out the response, 6) the reflex is needed to adapt (adapt) to changing environmental conditions.

An unconditioned reflex is a genetically fixed forecast of the development of events after receiving a warning signal, recorded in the form of an innate nervous connection - an unconditioned reflex arc.

Reflexes are divided into 2 large groups: unconditioned and conditioned .

Detailed definition of the concept of conditioned reflex

A conditioned reflex is a response of the body that is triggered not by an unconditioned stimulus adequate for it, but by a conditioned stimulus that has repeatedly coincided in time with this biologically significant unconditioned stimulus.

The reflex arc of a conditioned reflex is formed due to the formation of a temporary neural connection between the nerve centers of two different unconditioned reflexes, which were excited simultaneously or sequentially with a short time interval. This new connection connects two unconditioned reflex arcs in such a way that excitation that begins in one arc ends in the other.

The conditioned reflex has adaptive significance due to the anticipatory response to a biologically significant unconditioned stimulus that has not yet appeared.

A conditioned reflex is an individually acquired reaction of the body to a previously indifferent (synonym: indifferent) stimulus, reproducing an unconditioned reflex that is inadequate for a given stimulus. The conditioned reflex is based on the formation of new or modification of existing neural connections under the influence of changes in the external and internal environment. These are temporary connections that are inhibited under certain conditions, but can be restored again.

And here is how cleverly it is written about the conditioned reflex in one of the textbooks for students:

“As a result of the development of a conditioned reflex, a dynamic constellation of brain structures or a distributed system of homonymous modules is formed, involved simultaneously and successively in the process of activation (synchronous or asynchronous activity)” (Batuev A.S. Physiology of higher nervous activity and sensory systems: Textbook for universities. St. Petersburg .: Peter, 2005. 317 pp. P. 249).

The main feature of the conditioned reflex is that nervous excitation begins in one unconditioned reflex arc and ends in another.

Almost all textbooks present a comparison of two types of reflexes - unconditioned and conditioned - and emphasize the differences between them. However, unfortunately, the fundamental features of each of these two groups are not indicated. Let us correct this omission and indicate the main signs of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes.

Distinctive features of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes

1. Unconditioned reflexes - have constant receptive fields and rigid neural connections between receptors and effectors. Neural connections are genetically determined.

The essence of the unconditioned reflex is well reflected in the lines of the song by the group “Technology”: “Press the button - you will get the result!” This occurs because the neural pathways for unconditioned reflexes are genetically predetermined and innate. The response is provided through these standard pathways and is predetermined, standard and "automatic". It is inevitably triggered by irritation of certain receptors.

2. Conditioned reflexes have unstable receptive fields and flexible neural connections between receptors and effectors. An important distinctive feature of a conditioned reflex is that it is formed on the basis of two unconditioned reflexes, due to the connection of their reflex arcs by a special nervous connection - a temporary one. Through a temporary nervous connection, excitation that began in one unconditioned reflex arc can “run across” to another arc and end there.

This means that the same receptor can trigger not just one, but many different responses. And, on the other hand, the same response can be triggered from completely different receptors.

Receptive fields are a set of nearby receptors that jointly react to a stimulus and send excitation to a specific nervous structure. Accordingly, the receptive field of any neuron is a set of receptors from which it receives excitation (it does not matter that between it and the receptors there will be other neurons delivering to it the excitation that these receptors initially generated). The complex receptive fields of cortical neurons can be composed of receptors located remotely from each other and responding to completely different stimuli.

It is important to understand that any reflexes are carried out involuntarily , reflex actions are performed automatically, they are not planned, not thought out and not controlled by consciousness. The stimulus acted on the receptor - a nervous excitement arose - it ran along the nerve pathways intended for it - it reached the muscles - and here it is - a response to the stimulus!

For example, click on the penguins to see this. ))

Reflex arc

Physiological definition of the concept “reflex arc”

A reflex arc is a schematic path of excitation movement from a receptor to an effector.

We can say that this is the path of nervous excitation from the place of its birth to the place of application, as well as the path from the information input to the information output from the body. This is what a reflex arc is from a physiological point of view.

Anatomical definition of the concept of “reflex arc”

A reflex arc is a set of nerve structures involved in the implementation of a reflex act.

Both of these definitions of the reflex arc are correct, but for some reason the anatomical definition is more often used, although the concept of a reflex arc refers to physiology, not anatomy.

Remember that the circuit of any reflex arc must begin with a stimulus , although the stimulus itself is not part of the reflex arc. The reflex arc ends with an effector , which gives a response.

An irritant is a physical factor that, when exposed to sensory receptors adequate for it, generates nervous excitement in them.

The stimulus triggers transduction in the receptors, as a result of which irritation is converted into excitation.

Electric current is a universal stimulus because it can generate excitation not only in sensory receptors, but also in neurons, nerve fibers, glands and muscles.

Variants of the result of the effect of an irritant on the body

1. Ignoring - when influencing an area where there are no receptors adequate for a given stimulus.
2. Ignoring - with a subthreshold effect on adequate receptors.
3. Triggering of an unconditioned reflex - with a supra-threshold effect on adequate receptors.
4. Triggering of a conditioned reflex - with a suprathreshold effect of a conditioned stimulus on adequate receptors.
5. Triggering of the orienting reflex (orienting reaction), involuntary attention is triggered.
6. Triggering of a dominant is possible with a supra-threshold effect on any receptors in the presence of an active dominant focus.
7. Launch of a functional system according to P.K. Anokhin, if available.
8. Triggering emotions.
9. Launching the formation (= creation) of a neural model (in particular, a sensory image).
10. Snack on the learning process.
11. Snack on the memorization process (=memory consolidation).
12. Triggering the manifestation of memories.

Responses to stimuli are realized with the help of effectors (=executive organs). There are not many types of effectors to produce a response.

Types of effectoro in:

1) striated muscles of the body (fast white and slow red),

2) smooth muscles of blood vessels and internal organs,

3) exocrine glands (for example, salivary glands),

4) endocrine glands (for example, adrenal glands).

Accordingly, responses will be the result of the activity of these effectors, i.e. contraction or relaxation of muscles , leading to movements of the body or internal organs and blood vessels, or secretion of secretions by glands .

The concept of temporary neural connection

“ A temporal connection is a set of biochemical, neurophysiological and, possibly, ultrastructural changes in the brain that arise in the process of combining conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and form strictly defined relationships between structural formations that underlie various brain mechanisms. The memory mechanism records these relationships, ensuring their retention and reproduction.” (Khananashvili M.M., 1972).

Meanwhile, the meaning of this tricky definition boils down to the following:

A temporary nerve connection is a flexible part of a conditioned reflex arc, formed during the development of a conditioned reflex to connect two unconditioned reflex arcs. It ensures the conduction of excitation between the higher nerve centers of two different unconditioned reflexes. Initially, one of these two unconditioned reflexes is triggered by a weak stimulus (“conditioned”), and the second by a strong one (“unconditioned” or “reinforcement”), but when a conditioned reflex has already been developed, the weak conditioned stimulus gets the opportunity to trigger an “alien” unconditioned reaction for due to the transition of excitation from its nerve center to the nerve center of a strong unconditioned stimulus.

Types of reflex arcs:

1. Elementary (simple) reflex arc of an unconditioned reflex. © 2015-2016 Sazonov V.F. © 2015-2016 kineziolog.bodhy.ru. © 2016 kineziolog.su.

This reflex arc is the simplest, it contains only 5 elements. Although the figure shows more elements, from them we identify 5 main and necessary ones: receptor (2) - afferent (“incoming”) neuron (4) — intercalary neuron (6) — efferent (“outgoing”) neuron (7, — effector (13).

It is important to understand the meaning of each element of the arc. Receptor : converts irritation into nervous excitation. Afferent neuron : Delivers sensory stimulation to the central nervous system, to the interneuron. Interneuron : converts incoming excitation and directs it along the desired path. So, for example, an interneuron can receive sensory ("signal") excitation, and then transmit another excitation - motor ("control"). Efferent neuron : delivers control excitation to the effector organ. For example, motor excitation affects a muscle. The effector responds.

The figure on the right shows a rudimentary reflex arc using the example of the knee reflex, which is so simple that it does not even have interneurons.

Look another

, which depicts the elementary reflex arcs of the spinal cord and find there all the main elements of these arcs.

2. Conceptual parallel reflex arc of the unconditioned reflex E.P. Sokolova. It contains not one schematic pathway of excitation, but several parallel pathways, not one receptor generating nervous excitation, but many. It also contains new elements such as predictors, detector neurons and command neurons. The excitability of command neurons is controlled by general and local modulators.

The figure on the left shows a slightly modified diagram of the conceptual reflex arc. Added stimuli (incentives) and explanations.

3. Multi-story arc of the unconditioned reflex E.A. Asratyan. This diagram shows that in fact there are parallel arcs for the same unconditioned reflex on 5 different floors of the nervous system: 1) in the spinal cord, 2) in the medulla oblongata, 3) in the middle, 4) in the intermediate and 5) in the cerebral hemispheres brain

Ezras Asratovich Asratyan (a prominent Soviet neurophysiologist, a student of I.P. Pavlov, who elevated his teaching to dogma), while studying the unconditioned reflexes of normal and decorticated (deprived of the cerebral cortex) animals, came to the conclusion that the central part of the arc of the unconditioned reflex is not unilinear, and has a multi-level structure, i.e. consists of many branches that pass through the various “floors” of the central nervous system: the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, middle cord, intermediate cord and cortex (see figure). The highest part of the arc passes through the cerebral cortex; it is the cortical representation of this unconditioned reflex and personifies corticolization (control by the cortex) of the corresponding function.

Based on the location of the neurons involved in the reflex, reflexes can be divided into the following types:

• spinal reflexes: neurons located in the spinal cord,
• bulbar reflexes: carried out with the obligatory participation of neurons of the medulla oblongata,
• mesencephalic reflexes: carried out with the participation of midbrain neurons
• diencephalic reflexes: they involve neurons in the diencephalon
• cortical reflexes: carried out with the participation of neurons in the cerebral cortex.

In reflex acts carried out with the participation of neurons located in the higher parts of the central nervous system, neurons located in the lower parts - in the intermediate, middle, medulla oblongata and spinal cord - always participate. On the other hand, with reflexes that are carried out by the spinal or medulla oblongata, midbrain or diencephalon, nerve impulses reach the higher parts of the central nervous system.

Image source: https://aupam.ru/pages/medizina/fiziologiya_zns/page_07.htm

Please note that on the motor neuron that ends the reflex arc, many endings of neurons converge, located at different levels of the nervous system and seeking to control the activity of this motor neuron.

4. Bilateral arc of the conditioned reflex E.A. Asratyan. It shows that during the development of a conditioned reflex, opposing temporary connections are formed and both stimuli used are simultaneously both conditioned and unconditioned.

The figure on the right shows an animated diagram of a double conditioned reflex arc. It actually consists of two unconditioned reflex arcs: the left one is a blinking unconditioned reflex to irritation of the eye by an air flow (the effector is the contracting muscle of the eyelid), the right one is the salivary unconditioned reflex to irritation of the tongue with acid (the effector is the salivary gland that secretes saliva). Due to the formation of temporary conditioned reflex connections in the cerebral cortex, effectors begin to respond to stimuli that are normally inadequate for them: blinking in response to acid in the mouth and salivation in response to blowing air into the eye.

5. Reflex ring N.A. Bernstein. This diagram shows how movement is reflexively adjusted depending on the achievement of the set goal. His scheme N.A. Bernstein modified and complicated it over time.

bernshneyn61.jpg

Figure... Schemes of a reflex ring according to N.A. Bernstein, 1945, 1947, 1957 and 1961, respectively.

6. Functional system to ensure appropriate behavior of P.K. Anokhina. This diagram shows the management of complex behavioral acts aimed at achieving a useful planned result. The main features of this model are: an acceptor of the result of an action and feedback between elements.

7. Double arc of the conditioned salivary reflex. This diagram shows that any conditioned reflex must consist of two reflex arcs formed by two different unconditioned reflexes, because Each stimulus (conditioned and unconditioned) generates its own unconditioned reflex.

An example of an experimental protocol for developing a conditioned pupillary reflex to sound in a laboratory lesson

© 2010-2017 Sazonov V.F. © 2010-2016 kineziolog.bodhy.ru. © 2016-2017 kineziolog.su.

Article “The concept of “reflex” in psychology: historical analysis, “Psychological Journal””

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Reflex (biology)

For example, the offspring of a cross spider appear in the spring, when the parents have already died, but young spiders are able to build a trapping web, and their behavior is quite strictly programmed. And human children raised by animals will never become full-fledged people due to lack of proper upbringing.

Unlike animals, the human cortex has a greater ability to perceive patterns in the world around us.

And the main difference between the higher nervous activity of people is associated with the presence of speech - the second signaling system according to I.P. Pavlov. The first signaling system supplies information directly through the senses, the second signaling system is associated with the perception of words heard when pronounced or visible when read.

With the development of the second signaling system, it became possible to preserve and transmit information to subsequent generations, and a basis for the development of abstract thinking and consciousness appeared. “The Word,” wrote I.P. Pavlov, “made us people.”

Chapter 34. Human reproduction and development