The concept of communication, its structure, functions and types

Communication is a complex socio-psychological process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a strategy for interaction, perception and understanding of a partner.

Socially, it acts as a means of transmitting human culture and experience. Its specificity lies in the fact that the interlocutors reveal their subjective world to one another and show individual characteristics.

Communication varies according to:

• Number of participants: interpersonal, group, mass;
• Method: verbal (language, speech), non-verbal (facial expressions, gestures);
• Position of those communicating: contact (personal), remote (for example, through the media);
• Conditions: official (organized meetings), informal (on your own initiative);
• Tasks: installation (for the purpose of getting to know each other), informational (messaging);
• Means: direct (hand, head, voice sounds), indirect (trace, radio, television), direct (the ability to see, hear, feel), indirect (through intermediaries).

Classification

Classification of communication depending on the goals of interaction and its level:

1. Primitive. The interlocutor is considered as a means to achieve a goal and is assessed on a “needed – not needed” scale. This direct and simple attitude is not hidden.
2. Manipulative – interaction for the purpose of obtaining one’s own benefit. Unlike primitive contact, manipulation is a subtle game, using many techniques and techniques (lies, flattery, and so on).
3. Formal-role – completely regulated interaction. People interact with each other from the perspective of social roles. For example, boss and subordinate, teacher and student, doctor and patient, and so on.
4. “Mask contact” is a dry, formal interaction in which standard, memorized phrases and gestures are used. It is designed to hide any emotions and true thoughts behind a mask of polite courtesy or indifferent calm. Also, some people use modesty, ostentatious caring and other techniques as a social mask. The participants in the interaction do not strive to understand each other.
5. Business. The purpose of such social contact is to find a common solution on an issue of interest. The personality of the interlocutor is certainly taken into account, despite the fact that there are special rules and principles of business communication.
6. Secular. Subjects do not express their thoughts, but say what should and is accepted in a particular situation. Small talk is, as a rule, “talk about nothing”, empty and aimless gossip.
7. Spiritual. Such interaction is possible in close, trusting relationships. The interlocutors know each other well, respect beliefs, interests and views, are able to predict each other’s reactions, and communicate at the “Personality – Personality” level.

In addition, when determining the level of human interaction, they use a three-stage structure:

• The micro level is a single act of verbal or nonverbal contact that carries information and meaning. For example, nodding your head as a sign of agreement, shaking your hand as a sign of greeting, and the like.
• Mesa level - conversation and actions within the same topic, occurring once or repeated.
• The macro level is the established preferential strategy of interaction, chosen and developed by a person in the process of life, corresponding to the requirements of society, traditions and customs.

The following types of communication are also known:

1. Direct. It is carried out using the vocal cords, eyes, ears, hands and other organs of the human body.
2. Indirect. Interaction using specially manufactured devices and means of information exchange (by correspondence, by telephone, through Internet resources, and so on).
3. Direct. Personal contact and direct perception of the interlocutor.
4. Indirect. Interaction through intermediaries or representatives who transmit and reproduce the necessary information.
5. Verbal – interaction through oral speech.
6. Nonverbal - interaction without words, but with the help of facial expressions, gestures, postures, touches, and so on. Nonverbal body signals influence the perception of words and are processed unconsciously, while speech is conscious and consciously analyzed.

Words can be chosen and arranged into sentences; gestures and facial expressions are difficult to control; they are spontaneous, which is why they are more likely to express a person’s true thoughts and intentions.

Communication channels adequate to the senses:

1. Visual;
2. Auditory;
3. Tactile (touch);
4. Somatosensory (kinesthetic, feeling your body).

People have characteristics in the perception of the outside world and another person (social perception). They are divided into visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners:

1. visual people – they prefer to see everything with their own eyes, they like to tower over their partner;
2. auditory - perceive reality through auditory images: music, speech, sounds;
3. kinesthetics – experience (emotionally) through the state of their body.

Logically, we can name the following communication channels: direct, indirect, controlled indirect:

1. direct channel – transmission of information in explicit form;
2. indirect (indirect) – information obtained for the purpose of control or addition to what was previously accepted;
3. controlled indirect channel - a message perceived as unintentional is presented as completely intentional (a convincing tone in a dubious situation).

Psychological characteristics of speech

One of the features of speech is its versatility (Fig. 6).

Functions of speech

Impacts

Messages

Expressions

Consists of a person’s ability through speech to encourage people to take certain actions or refuse them

Consists of the exchange of information (thoughts) between people through words, phrases

The point is that, on the one hand, thanks to speech a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships and, on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech and its emotionality significantly expand the possibilities of communication

Designations

Consists in a person’s ability, through words, to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality names that are unique to them.

Rice. 6. Functions of speech

According to its many functions, speech is a polymorphic activity, i.e. for its various functional purposes is presented in different forms and types (Fig. 7, 8).35

Internal

External

Forms of speech

Rice. 7. Forms of speech

External speech is a system of sound signals, written signs and symbols used by a person to transmit information, the process of materialization of thought. It can be oral and written.

Types of speech

Oral

Written

Dialogical

Monologue

Rice. 8. Types of speech

Oral speech is verbal (verbal) communication through linguistic means perceived by ear. She has two subspecies:

1. monologue speech is the speech of one person expressing his thoughts over a relatively long time, or a consistent coherent presentation by one person of a system of knowledge. Monologue speech is characterized by consistency and evidence, which are ensured by coherence of thought, grammatically correct design and expressiveness of vocal means. During preparation, such a speech is spoken out repeatedly, the necessary words and sentences are selected, and the plan for the speech is often recorded in writing. Monologue speech has greater compositional complexity, requires completeness of thought, stricter adherence to grammatical rules, strict logic and consistency in the presentation of what the speaker of the monologue wants to say. For example, the speech of a prosecutor, a lawyer in court;
2. Dialogical speech is speech in which all its participants are equally active. This is psychologically the simplest and most natural form of speech. It occurs during direct communication between two or more interlocutors. It is characterized by remarks exchanged between speakers, repetitions of phrases and individual words after the interlocutor, questions, additions, and explanations. Both dialogic and monologue speech can be active and passive. Both of these terms are, of course, conditional and characterize the activity of the speaker or listener. The active form of speech is the speech of a speaking person, while the speech of a listening person appears in a passive form. The fact is that when a person listens, he repeats to himself the words of the speaker. Outwardly this does not manifest itself in any way, although speech activity is present.

People differ in the degree of development of active and passive speech. One person understands another person’s speech well, but does not convey his own thoughts well, another speaks well, but does not know how to listen at all.

In legal practice, this is the main type of speech used in the process of communication of an investigator, prosecutor, lawyer, judge with participants in criminal and civil proceedings, with various officials and other persons. Dialogical interaction is aimed primarily at mutual familiarization of the parties with the position taken, at clarifying attitudes towards various events, people, etc.

Written speech is speech through written signs (letter, notes, scientific treatise).

It is addressed to a wide range of readers, is not situational and requires in-depth skills of sound-letter analysis, the ability to logically and grammatically correctly convey one’s thoughts, analyze what is written and improve the form of expression. The use of written language creates the need to achieve the most correct formulations, strictly adhere to the rules of logic and grammar, and think more deeply about the content and method of expressing thoughts.

In connection with the existing clear regulation of the preparation of procedural documents in the legal literature one can find the term “protocol language”. This term means: a set of special legal terms and concepts, certain speech patterns, stylistic rules for drawing up procedural documents.

There are certain requirements for the protocol style of presentation: the use of unambiguous terms that exclude their arbitrary interpretation; the use of precise and concise formulations, certain phraseological units, definitions; a brief, understandable summary of the material.

Inner speech is speech that does not perform the function of communication, but only serves the thinking process of a particular person.

With the help of internal speech, the process of transforming thoughts into speech and preparing a speech utterance is carried out. Inner speech is a person’s conversation with himself, which expresses thinking, motives of behavior, planning and managing activities.

In speech, the following properties can be distinguished: content, understandability, expressiveness and effectiveness (Fig. 9).

Properties of speech

Expressiveness

The number of thoughts, feelings and aspirations expressed in speech, their significance and correspondence to reality

Syntactically correct construction of sentences, as well as the use of pauses in appropriate places and highlighting words using logical stress

Emotional richness, richness of linguistic means, their diversity. In its expressiveness, speech can be bright, energetic and, conversely, sluggish, poor

The property of speech, which consists in its influence on the thoughts, feelings and will of other people, on their beliefs and behavior

Content

Understandability

Effectiveness

Rice. 9. Properties of speech

A lawyer’s speech, as a rule, should convey knowledge and facilitate its transformation into beliefs. It must teach, educate, and have the goal of influencing the individual and the team, their mood, opinion, interests, behavior, feelings. To achieve an oral presentation, a legal worker needs high speech and mental culture. His speech should be scientific in content, comply with legal norms, and in form - logical, bright, figurative. A lawyer must be able to connect the content of his speech with life, take into account the states and needs of the people listening to him, and use various linguistic means of expression (grooves, intonation, stress, etc.). The success of such a performance also depends on his knowledge, professional experience, sincerity, fluency in the material, self-control, endurance, and correct external expression of his feelings.

There are certain requirements for a lawyer’s speech, ignoring which negatively affects his professional authority. Therefore, a lawyer’s speech should be distinguished:

1. literacy, understandability, accessibility of the meaning of statements for any category of citizens;
2. consistency, logical order of presentation, persuasiveness, legal argumentation with references to various facts, evidence, legal norms;
3. purity of speech - the absence of non-literary, slang, and vulgar words in speech;
4. compliance with moral and ethical rules and standards of behavior;
5. expressiveness, a wide range of emotional means of influence: from emphatically neutral speech forms to emotionally expressive statements, accompanied by verbal means of influence;
6. variability of statements: from an invitation to participate in communication to the use of phrases filled with categorical requirements depending on various communicative situations[6].

A lawyer, in the course of his professional activity, needs to constantly improve his speech skills and improve the culture of communication.

The appropriateness of statements, taking into account the context and subtext of the statement, the absence of difficulties in written speech, variability in the interpretation of information, good orientation in the field of evaluative stereotypes and templates, the plurality of meanings of the concepts used, the metaphorical nature of speech indicate a person’s verbal competence.

Knowledge, abilities and skills related to speech activity are important components of communicative competence and communicative culture, which is often called speech culture.

Means of communication:

• Language is a system of words, expressions and rules for combining them into logical speech;
• Intonation is emotional expressiveness that can give a different shade to any phrase;
• Facial expressions, posture, gaze - can enhance or refute the meaning of what was said;
• Gestures – generally accepted or expressive (for expressiveness);
• The distance of the interlocutors depends on the degree of their trust, cultural and national traditions.

In speech, tempo, volume, and intonation are distinguished, which makes it possible to determine the emotional state of the individual and his attitude to the transmitted message.

A person cannot consciously control the entire sphere of means of communication for a long time. Therefore, often even what he wants to hide is revealed, for example, through the movement of his hands, the expression of his eyes, the position of his legs, etc.

Communication structure

The study of communication shows the complexity, diversity, multi-level nature of the manifestations and functions of this phenomenon, which, in turn, requires the identification of its individual components and a description of the structure.

There are several approaches to structuring communication. Let us dwell on the two most frequently encountered in the scientific literature. The first illustrates the approach of G.M. Andreeva and identifies three interrelated aspects of communication: communicative, interactive and perceptual (Fig. 1).

Sides of communication

Communicative

Interactive

Perceptual

Identification of the specifics of the information process between people as active subjects (taking into account the relationships between partners, their attitudes and intentions)

Interaction of partners in organizing and carrying out joint activities

Forming an image of another person by correlating physical characteristics with psychological properties and behavioral characteristics

Rice. 1. Parties of communication according to G.M. Andreeva

The second is based on the concept of A.N. Leontyev. Communication is considered as a communicative activity (Fig. 2).

Structure of communicative activity

Subject of communication

Another person, communication partner

Need

in communication

A person’s desire to know and evaluate other people, and through them and with their help - to self-knowledge, to self-esteem

Communication motives

What communication is for

Units of communicative activity, a holistic act addressed to another person (two main categories of communication actions - proactive and reactive)

Communication actions

The goal to achieve which in a specific communicative situation various actions performed in the process of communication are aimed

Communication tasks

Communication means

Operations by which communication actions are carried out

Product of communication

Formations of a material and spiritual nature created as a result of communication

Rice. 2. Structure of communicative activity

according to A.N. Leontiev

Of course, in reality, all three sides of communication are interconnected, appear almost simultaneously in the process of communication and are isolated for the convenience of scientific, experimental research. But this convention does not mean that the identification of these three components of communication is just speculative constructions.

Communication strategy:

1. Open - closed (Closed communication - the reluctance or inability of one of the partners to clearly convey their point of view, information);
2. Monological - dialogical;
3. Role-playing (social-role-playing) – personal (“heart-to-heart”).

An important issue in communication is openness, i.e. not only the sincerity of the speaker, but also the ability to perceive the partner impartially. High culture gives you confidence that you will be understood correctly.

Communication tactics is the implementation of a strategy in a specific situation based on knowledge and mastery of techniques, rules and techniques of communication.

Three sides of communication

The structure of communication conditionally divides it into three processes that are interconnected and interdependent:

• Social perception - the perception of an interaction partner

People perceive each other through their senses, evaluate their appearance, speech, behavior and draw conclusions about the possibility of continuing social contact. The first impression is especially important. How another person is perceived for the first time, when meeting for the first time, influences the willingness to exchange information and interact with him.

• Communication – exchange of information

Contacts are meaningless if people do not know how to convey the necessary information, knowledge and experience to each other verbally and non-verbally.

• Interaction – exchange of actions

A conversation without the ability to perform actions that affect the interlocutor and exchange actions with him would be ineffective and ineffective.

Types of communication:

• Mask contact (formal communication) – lack of desire to understand the partner, to take into account his individual characteristics. The usual cliches are used (politeness, severity, compassion, equanimity, etc.), artificial facial expressions, gestures, a set of phrases, which allows you to hide the true attitude towards the interlocutor;
• Primitive communication - a person is evaluated based on his usefulness. Needed - they will actively make contact, interferes - they will not notice, they get what they want - they will push them away;
• Formal-role-based, when both the content and means of communication are regulated, instead of studying the individual, they make do with knowledge of social (official) functions;
• Business communication – the individual’s psychological qualities, character traits, motives, and mood are taken into account. However, the interests of the case are higher and more significant than possible personal differences;
• Spiritual communication of friends - they can talk without words, using facial expressions, intonation, using gestures, movements;
• Manipulative communication – pursues one goal: to extract benefits from a partner using various techniques (revenge, intimidation, “showing off”, deception, demonstration of kindness, courtesy, etc.);
• Secular communication - its essence - is non-objective, i.e. people do not say what they think, but what is appropriate in some cases.

Description of communication models

The structure of communication determines the patterns of communication. Some people are more sociable, love to be in company and can talk for hours about nothing, while others are closed, prefer internal dialogues to external ones, talk little and only about business.

Sociability as a character trait develops, you can improve communication skills, the ability to objectively perceive people and interact effectively with them.

Communication patterns, as a rule, are formed in childhood or adopted from parents. Also, communication patterns can be determined by the specifics of the position held and even be a sign of professional deformation of the individual (for example, a teacher communicates with relatives, as well as with students).

COMMUNICATION MODELS:

1. "Mont Blanc". Aloof, cold interlocutor. He focuses on the communicative side of interaction; he is not interested in interactions.
2. "Chinese Wall". A person who considers himself higher and more significant than others. Perceives others as less successful/beautiful/smart people, which makes it difficult to interact with him.
3. "Locator". A person who chooses a narrow circle of friends. Often one loved one or close friend is enough for him.
4. "Grouse". A very uncommunicative person who creates only the appearance of communication and interaction. At the same time, the structure of Teterev’s internal communication with himself is preserved and oversaturated with dialogues and introspection.
5. "Hamlet". Social perception is extremely important for this type of communication model. He tries to make the best impression, which is why he often plays to the public.
6. "Robot". This person talks and acts “dryly”, unemotionally, always knows what, when and why to do or not to do.
7. "Egoist". A person speaks only about himself, all his actions are aimed at obtaining personal gain.
8. "Ally". The best form and type of communication, as it is two-way. The interlocutors are interested in productive interaction, take into account personality, strive to understand each other and come to an agreement.

Communication functions

In psychology, there are many classifications of communication functions.

According to the criterion of the purpose of communication, eight functions are distinguished:

1. contact – establishing a state of readiness to receive and transmit messages;
2. informational – exchange of messages, information, plans;
3. incentive – stimulation of subscriber activity;
4. coordination – mutual coordination of actions;
5. understanding – perception and understanding of the meaning of the message, attitudes, intentions;
6. amotive – arousing the necessary emotional experiences in the interlocutor;
7. establishing relationships - awareness of one’s place in the system of role, business, interpersonal connections of the team in which a person acts;
8. exerting influence – changing the partner’s state and behavior, incl. his opinions, intentions, attitudes, needs, etc.

We will consider a generalized version - three functions (they are called sides, aspects) of communication:

1. Communication (exchange of information);
2. Interactive (organization of interaction);
3. Perceptual (perception and formation of an image of another person).

Topic 1.4. Types and levels of communication

Plan:

1. Types, levels and functions of communication
2. Sides of communication
3. Ways one person influences another

Concepts:

communication;
communicative, interactive ,
perceptual aspects of communication; kinesics, proxemics, prosody, paralinguistics, extralinguistics; gestures and postures, eye contact; non-verbal communication; identification, empathy and reflection; persuasion, infection, coercion, imitation.

Questions for discussion

:

1. Communication strategies: open - closed, personal - role-playing, monologue - dialogical.
2. Types of communication and their characteristics: “mask contact”, primitive, formal-role, business, spiritual or interpersonal, manipulative, secular communication.

Communicative function of communication.

Communication is a process of two-way exchange of information leading to mutual understanding (Communication (lat. communicatio) is an act of communication, a connection between two or more individuals based on mutual understanding; the communication of information by one person to another or a number of people.). In their activities, people exchange with each other various perceptions, ideas, interests, moods, etc. This is the information of human communication, which is not just sent, but also formed, clarified, and developed.

The communicative side of communication has its own specifics:

• Communication is not just the movement of information. Here we are dealing with a relationship between two individuals, and each of them acts as an active subject (their mutual information implies the establishment of joint activities). The significance of information is determined by the fact that it is not just accepted, but also meaningful and understood;
• The exchange of information involves mutual influence, psychological influence on the partner’s behavior in order to change it. In this case, participants must have a unified coding system, i.e. when the signs and their meanings are known;
• There may be barriers to communication. On the one hand, there is a lack of a common understanding of the current situation (social aspect); on the other hand, obstacles can be of a psychological nature due to personal characteristics (secrecy, mistrust, incompatibility, etc.).

Description of types of communication

The concept of “type of communication” is close to the concept of the model. Types of communication, as well as models, are used to indicate the characteristics of communication.

Types of communication:

1. Mentorsky. With this type of communication, a person constantly teaches, instructs, and subjugates his interlocutor.
2. Informative. A type of communication that is simply a relay of information, without the ability or desire to receive feedback.
3. Inspiring. The individual participates in the fate of the interlocutor, supporting him, guiding him, helping him, advising him. With this type of communication, there is a productive dialogue, cooperation, and mutual assistance between the subjects of the relationship.
4. Confrontational. Unlike other forms of communication, it involves discussion, dialogue with an opponent, constructive criticism with the goal of finding the truth through confrontation between personal subjective and objective views, reality.

Types of communication are needed in order to be able to select the most appropriate methods of communication in different situations: persuasion, suggestion, infection, request, coercion, ignoring and even manipulation.

Verbal and non-verbal means of communication

(Verbal (lat. verbalis) - verbal, oral.)

Verbal communication is oral and written speech, i.e. Language serves as a sign system. Its structure includes:

• The meaning and meaning of words, phrases;
• Speech sound phenomena (modulation of voice pitch - smooth, sharp; rhythm - uniform, choppy; timbre - rolling, hoarse, creaky; tonality - high, low; diction; intonation; speech rate - fast, medium, slow). They are studied by paralinguistics;
• Expressive qualities of the voice - specific sounds - laughter, grunting, crying, whispering, breathing; separating sounds - cough; zero - pauses, nasalizations - “hmm-hmm”, “uh”, etc. They are studied by extralinguistics.

Forms of oral speech – monologue and dialogue. Many factors influence the effectiveness of communication. Among them: intentions - moods, attitudes, suggesting active interaction between partners; their involvement in joint activities; the presence of feedback (allows you to reveal the accuracy of perception of the meaning of information); skills and abilities.

Although speech is a universal means of communication, it is complemented by the use of other sign systems. Scientists believe that in communication words make up 7%, sounds and intonations – 38%, non-verbal interaction – 53% (according to other sources, up to 80%).

Concept of speech

Speech is the process of communication between people using language. In order to be able to speak and understand someone else’s speech, you need to know the language and be able to use it.

In psychology, it is customary to separate the concepts of “language” and “speech” (Table 2).

Language is a system of signs and symbols with the help of which combinations of sounds that have a certain meaning and meaning for people are transmitted. Language is developed by society and is a form of reflection of their social existence in the public consciousness of people. Language, being formed in the process of communication between people, is at the same time a product of socio-historical development.

table 2

The meaning of speech and language (psychological aspect)

Speech is a form of communication that has developed historically in the course of the material transformative activities of people, mediated by language. Thus, speech is the realization of language, which reveals itself only through speech. Human speech arises in response to the need to communicate with someone or communicate something.

Speech is closely connected with all aspects of human consciousness. Speech is a factor in a person’s mental development, his formation as a personality. All mental processes with the help of speech become voluntary and controllable. Speech is a mental phenomenon, it is individual and bears the imprint of a given individual’s subjective reflection and expression of objective reality and attitude towards it.

Nonverbal communication.

1. Kinestics – studies the external manifestations of feelings and emotions (based on general motor skills of various parts of the body) – these are facial expressions, gestures, pantomimes;
2. Takesika – studies touching, shaking hands, kissing, touching, stroking, pushing, etc.;
3. Proxemics – considers the norms of spatial and temporal organization of communication;
4. Visual communication (“eye contact”) is an important addition to verbal communication.

Facial expressions are movements of facial muscles that show an emotional state; it can give a true “picture” of what a person is experiencing. Facial expressions carry 70% of the information, i.e. eyes, eyebrows, nose, mouth, chin can say more than words (A person is considered to be trying to hide his information (or lying) if his eyes meet his partner’s eyes for less than 1/3 of the conversation time.).

According to its specifics, the view can be:

• Business – fixed in the area of ​​a person’s forehead;
• Secular – goes down to the level of the lips;
• Intimate – directed not at the partner’s eyes, but below the face – to other parts of the body up to the chest line;
• Suspicious (critical) - a sidelong glance.

Gestures are also important when communicating.

Physiological basis of speech

The physiological basis of speech is illustrated in Fig. 5.

Peripheral speech support systems include:

1. the energetic system of the respiratory organs necessary for the production of sound - the lungs and the main respiratory muscle - the diaphragm;

1. generator system - sound vibrators (vocal cords of the larynx), the vibration of which produces sound waves;
2. resonator system - nasopharynx, skull, larynx and chest.

Syntagmatic and paradigmatic mechanisms of speech

Mechanisms

speech perception

Mechanisms for organizing speech response

Peripheral speech support systems: energy, generator, resonator

Second signaling system

Brain speech centers

Speech

Speech functions of the left hemisphere of the brain

Rice. 5. Physiological foundations of speech

According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, in humans there are two signaling systems of stimuli: the first signaling system is the direct impact of the internal and external environment on various receptors (this is also present in animals) and the second signaling system (speech). Moreover, only a small part of these words denotes sensory effects on humans. The work of the second signaling system consists primarily in the analysis and synthesis of generalized speech signals.

Special studies have established that a person’s ability to analyze and synthesize speech is associated with the left hemisphere of the brain. There are four brain speech centers: Brocca's center (located in the superior frontal gyrus), responsible for the volume of speech pronunciation; Wernicke's center (located in the temporal gyrus) - associated with understanding the meaning; visual center (located in the occipital lobe) – associated with the reading process; writing center (located in the middle frontal gyrus) – associated with written speech.

In addition, speech is ensured by the functioning of certain physiological mechanisms.

Syntagmatic and paradigmatic mechanisms of speech. Syntagmatic mechanisms reflect the dynamic organization of a speech utterance and its physiological characteristics during the functioning of the cerebral cortex. Paradigmatic are responsible for connecting the posterior parts of the left hemisphere with speech codes (phonemic, articulatory, semantic, etc.).

Mechanisms of speech perception. The transition to understanding the speech message is possible only after the speech signal has been converted. It is analyzed on the basis of detector coding, the phonemic interpretation of the information received by the brain. This means that neurons are sensitive to different sound signals and act on the basis of building a certain model of word recognition.

Mechanisms for organizing speech response. In an adult who speaks language, perception and pronunciation are mediated by internal physiological codes that provide phonological articulatory, visual and semantic analysis of words. Moreover, all of the above codes and the operations carried out on their basis have their own cerebral localization.

The complex process of verbal communication is based on the sequential activation of the mechanisms that provide it.

The first stage in the formation of speech structures is speech programming - building the backbone of a speech utterance. For this purpose, important information is selected and unnecessary information is eliminated.

The second stage is the construction of the syntactic structure of the sentence. The general structure of the phrase and its grammatical form are predicted, mechanisms are activated to ensure the search for the desired word, and the selection of sounds that most accurately reproduce it. Finally, pronunciation, the actual sound of speech, takes place. Thus, the process of “speaking” unfolds, during which the communicator encodes the information to be transmitted.

During the listening process, the interlocutor decodes the information received, which in turn is a step-by-step translation of the sounds of audible speech into the meaning of words, and this ensures an understanding of what the communicator wanted to say.

Types of gestures:

• gestures - assessments (scratching the chin, extending the index finger along the cheek, standing up and walking);
• gestures of confidence (joining fingers into a pyramid dome, rocking on a chair);
• gestures of nervousness and uncertainty (pinching palms, tapping fingers on the table);
• gestures of self-control (hands behind the back, the pose of a person sitting on a chair and clutching the armrests with his hands);
• waiting gestures (rubbing palms, etc.);
• denial gestures (folded or crossed arms, tilting the body back, touching the tip of the nose);
• positioning gestures (putting hands to the chest, intermittently touching the interlocutor);
• gestures of dominance (exposing thumbs, sharp movements from top to bottom);
• gestures of insincerity (“covering your mouth with your hand”, “touching your nose”, turning your body away from your partner, “running gaze”).

Gestures can be divided into five groups:

1. Gestures-illustrators, i.e. messages:
   signs;
2. pictographs (pictures of images - “this is such a figure”);
3. kinetographs - body movement;
4. gestures - “beats” (“hello”, raised above the head - “goodbye”);
5. Adapter gestures are human habits associated with hand movements (scratching, twitching of certain parts of the body; touching and spanking a partner; stroking; fingering nearby objects (button, pen));
6. Gestures – affectors – express certain emotions through movements of the body and facial muscles.

Pantomime reflects the motor skills of the whole body, posture, posture, gait, and bending. These dynamic positions characterize the psychological state of the individual, including the readiness and desirability of communication or reluctance to do so.

Proxemics is the idea that time and space carry meaning in communication.

There are four zones (distances) in interpersonal contact:

1. Intimate (15 cm) - only close, well-known people are allowed into it. Characteristics here are trust, a quiet voice, touch;
2. Personal or personal (45–120 cm) – intended for casual conversation with friends and colleagues and involves visual contact;
3. Social (120–400 cm) – observed during official meetings in office premises, as a rule, with those who are not well known;
4. Public (over 400 cm) - implies communication with a large group of people - at a rally, in a lecture hall.

The different relationships people have with each other can be expressed in what place they occupy at the table:

B1 – corner location is typical for those engaged in casual conversation;

B2 – position of joint activity, partnership, equality;

B3 – competitive defensive line, where the table is a barrier;

B4 – an independent position for those who do not want to interact.

Business conversations are held at a square (official) table, emphasizing chain of command. Here, cooperative relationships are established by the boss most of all with those nearby. Round (informal) – intended for confidential communication, “convenience” of discussion.

The importance of communication in ontogenesis

In ontogenesis (individual human development), the role and characteristics of communication are no less important than in phylogenesis. The development of an individual is impossible without interaction with other people.

Newborn babies, not knowing how to speak, already react to the voice and affection of an adult, and later begin to smile back at him. Later, the so-called revitalization complex appears - the first form of interaction of a new person with his own kind.

Forms of communication that arise in the process of ontogenesis:

Directly emotional

When a baby develops a revival complex, he does not yet interact with his parents as an equal partner, but expresses his attitude through facial expressions and gestures: he cries and laughs, is surprised and frightened, and so on. Such forms of communication are characteristic of infants up to the first year of life.

Subject-effective

The child interacts with people by manipulating objects and playing. The baby extends his hand when he wants to take or give something, and understands that in order to establish contact he needs to get closer to the person. This form of interaction undergoes significant changes, but is generally maintained during the first six years of life.

Extra-situational intimate-personal

It appears by the end of preschool age, but the main forms of this communication develop already in the puberty period (puberty).

Forms of communication undergo changes as an individual grows and matures; they are combined and complemented differently in different individuals.

Without a child’s contact with adults, he will not be able to develop as a person.

The importance and necessity of communication between a child and his parents cannot be overestimated. Relationships with parents are the foundation, guideline and measure by which all subsequent connections of a person with people, society, and himself will be measured.

Types and forms of communication are formed especially intensively in adolescence. This is the age of active interaction with peers, the time of first love and the formation of the self-concept.

The teenager’s activities become multifaceted, the content of communications and actions is enriched. A qualitatively new level of forms and types of interaction between young people contributes to the development of awareness, responsibility, independence and personality as a whole.

The structure of communication affects the structure of personality. Violation or lack of interaction with people invariably leads to a transformation of the individual’s “I”. Personality changes that are not for the better (including pathological ones) cannot but affect the ability to interact and understand other people and oneself.

Interactive communication function.

It is associated with the development of strategy and tactics for interaction between people.

Communication involves changing the behavior and activities of another person. Here it (communication) acts as interpersonal interaction. Its signs:

1. The presence of an external goal (object), the achievement of which is determined by joint efforts;
2. Explicitness – accessibility for observation from the outside and registration by other individuals;
3. Situationalism – fairly strict regulation by specific conditions of activity, intensity, norms and rules of relations;
4. Reflexive ambiguity is the dependence of the perception of interaction on the conditions of its implementation and the assessments of the people participating in them.

Joint activities must be accompanied by mutual understanding. Mutual understanding is a form of interaction between individuals who are aware of the content and structure of the partner’s present and possible next actions, understand the feelings and moods they experience, and contribute to the achievement of a real goal and a specific result.

Components of communication and its varieties

Components of communication are those components that are not included in the structure of communication.

These include:

• content,
• target,
• facilities,
• subjects (participants of interaction),
• type of connection between subjects,
• style,
• tactics,
• techniques, methods,
• result.

Depending on the components, various types and forms of communication are distinguished:

• emotional – exchange of emotions;
• cognitive – knowledge sharing;
• activity - exchange of skills and abilities;
• motivational – exchange of desires and goals;
• material – exchange of objects or products.

Types of social interaction can be defined as its levels. Level – certain behavioral manifestations of a personality that allow us to draw conclusions about a person and the ways of his interaction with other people. The types and levels of communication change as it becomes more complex from simple, primitive to complex, spiritual.

Your psychologist. The work of a psychologist at school.

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Types and forms of communication . Communication can be of various types, each of which has its own characteristics and rules.

There are interpersonal (direct contacts of people in small groups) and mass communication. Mass communication is a set of direct contacts of strangers (for example, a crowd), as well as communication through radio, television, newspapers, magazines, and electronic media.

There are also interpersonal (ordinary communication between people, each of whom has their own unique qualities) and role-based communication. In the case of role-based communication, a person acts as a bearer of a certain role (student - teacher, buyer - seller, son - father, etc.) and acts as his role prescribes for him.

Communication can be personal and business . In personal communication, the direct emotional relationships of people to each other are manifested, and informal information is exchanged. Business communication is the process of interaction between people performing joint responsibilities or involved in the same activity.

The previously predominant direct (immediate - “face to face”) communication is now increasingly being replaced by indirect (with the help of additional means: writing, audio and video equipment, etc.) and becoming more widespread. Direct communication itself is characterized by an increase in forced contacts between people (in transport, on the streets, in shops, etc.). Communication can be confidential and conflictual.

The diversity of communication can be characterized on other grounds. Imperative communication is an authoritarian, directive form of influencing a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior and force him to take certain actions or decisions. One can name a whole group of spheres of activity and situations in which the use of the imperative is justified. For example, military regulations or work in extreme conditions, emergency circumstances. The use of the imperative is inappropriate and unethical in the areas of intimate personal and marital, child-parent and pedagogical relationships . Manipulative communication is a form of interpersonal interaction in which influence on a communication partner in order to achieve one’s intentions is carried out covertly. The symbol of this type of communication in the business sphere has become the concept of communication by D. Carnegie and his many followers. Manipulation is also used in the media when the concept of “black” and “gray” propaganda is implemented. A person who has chosen this form of communication as the main one for himself, especially in the sphere of relationships with friends and parents, ultimately becomes a victim of his own manipulations. Close, trusting relationships are destroyed, and stereotypical forms of behavior are formed. As E. Shostrom, one of the critics of the Carnegian school of communication, notes, a manipulator is characterized by deceit, primitiveness of feelings, cynicism and distrust of himself and others.

Imperative and manipulative forms of communication are essentially varieties of monologue communication. We can say that a person who views another only as an object of his influence to achieve his own goals communicates with himself without seeing the true interlocutor.

Significantly more opportunities for mutual understanding, self-disclosure and mutual enrichment are contained in dialogical communication - equal subject-subject interaction. This form of communication is also called humanistic communication. According to the famous psychotherapist K. Rogers, it has psychotherapeutic properties and strengthens a person’s mental health.

Remember the basic rules of dialogic (humanistic) communication:

1. Perception of a communication partner as an equal, having the right to his own opinion and decision.

2. Non-judgmental perception of the interlocutor’s personality, trust in him.

3. Taking into account in communication the feelings, desires, and physical states that those communicating are experiencing at the moment of the meeting or conversation.

4. Identification and discussion of problems and unresolved issues, their comprehensive analysis.

5. Addressing the interlocutor on your own behalf, without reference to opinions and authorities

Means of communication . Any communication between people is carried out through two main channels: speech ( verbal or, one might say, verbal) and non ( non-verbal , commonly known as “body language”).

You already know how important competent and correct oral and written speech is for fruitful interaction with other people. In communication, an important role is played not only by the accuracy of the use of words, the correct construction of phrases and pronunciation, but also by the pace of speech, rhythm, and timbre. The most attractive is a smooth, measured manner of speech.

Nonverbal means of communication are our gestures, posture, gait, facial expressions; eye contact; the distance at which the interlocutors communicate. They can strengthen, complement or refute the meaning of what is said in words. From 60% to 70% of information (especially about attitude towards the interlocutor) is transmitted through non-verbal means. Although usually people who have not undergone special training are little aware of their nonverbal behavior - thus, even without saying anything out loud, they are overly “chatty.”

Unfortunately, quite often when people listen, they do not hear each other. It is important not only for a psychologist, but for any person to master the technique of effective listening.

Some techniques to improve listening skills

1. Don't interrupt your interlocutor.

2. Show full attention to your interlocutor with your gestures and facial expressions. If possible, look at him continuously and kindly.

3. When the interlocutor has spoken, repeat the main idea in your own words to clarify whether you understood him correctly.

4. Avoid hasty conclusions; try to fully understand the other person’s train of thought.

5. Try to react as calmly as possible to the emotional behavior of your interlocutor, try to hear the main thing.

6. Don't pretend that you are listening attentively, you have to force yourself to really listen attentively.

7. Don't get distracted.

8. Remember that not all information is contained in words. Look for the true meaning of the interlocutor’s words, taking into account non-verbal information.

9. Don't monopolize the conversation.

Conclusions: 1. The phenomenon of communication is complex and diverse in its manifestations and functions. 2. Most often, three sides of communication are distinguished: informational (or communicative), interaction (or interactive), understanding (or perceptual). 3. Communication is of great importance both in the life of an individual and in society as a whole. 4. The effectiveness of using certain types and forms of communication depends on their compliance with the content of those areas of human life and activity in which they are used. 5. Humanistic communication allows us to achieve deep mutual understanding, self-disclosure of people, and creates conditions for their mutual development. 6. Communication between people is carried out using verbal and non-verbal means.

1. The famous French pilot and writer Antoine de Saint-Exupery painted a poetic image of communication as “the only luxury that a person has.” In your opinion, what features of communication gave the writer the opportunity for such characteristics?

2. How does communication affect mental development and his formation as a person?

4. L. S. Vygotsky o. How could you justify this point of view of the famous Soviet psychologist?

5. What types of communication can be identified to characterize the interaction between people?

6. What are the similarities and differences between imperative and manipulative forms of communication? In what areas of human interaction is it advisable to use them?

7. How do you understand the meaning of the basic rules of humanistic communication? Why do you think such communication helps strengthen a person’s mental health?

8. Do you agree with the following words of the Publication: “We speak with our voice, we talk with our whole body”? Justify your position.

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