The term "cognitive activity"
First of all, it is necessary to understand whether the terms “cognitive” and “learning activity” are close in meaning.
As you know, at school the learning process is purposeful, planned and organized. But discoveries related to knowledge of the world around us are made not only during training sessions. This can happen in a child's life under any other circumstances. Thus, cognitive activity is a much broader concept than educational activity.
The level of development of a child’s cognitive activity is influenced by many subjective and objective factors. Cognition is a complex process that still occupies the minds of scientists around the world.
Development of cognitive abilities
Most modern educational programs in school and preschool institutions are structured in such a way that they are based on the idea of developmental education. This obliges the teacher to give the child an idea of the world as a holistic picture. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to go beyond one school subject. Children, first under the guidance of a teacher, and then independently, must be able to compare and observe the phenomena of the surrounding reality, draw conclusions, put forward hypotheses, and provide the necessary evidence.
Without such personal qualities as curiosity, determination, hard work, and efficiency, it is impossible to achieve success in any type of work activity, including academic work. The basis for the formation of the listed qualities and skills is properly organized educational and cognitive activity.
As already noted, the desire to explore the world around us is one of the characteristics of young children. It is inherent in a person from birth. In order for the development of a child’s natural inclinations to proceed effectively, adults must properly organize the educational environment surrounding the child.
How to write a term paper on speech therapy
07.09.2010 257575
These guidelines are compiled to help students gain an understanding of the content and structure of coursework in speech therapy.
Logopedia of pedagogical science that studies anomalies of speech development with normal hearing, explores the manifestations, nature and mechanisms of speech disorders, develops the scientific basis for overcoming and preventing them means of special training and education.
The subject of speech therapy as a science is speech disorders and the process of training and education of persons with speech disorders.
The object of study is a person suffering from a speech disorder.
The main task of speech therapy as a science is the study, prevention and elimination of various types of speech disorders.
Coursework in speech therapy is a student's scientific and experimental research. This type of educational activity, provided for by the educational and professional program and curriculum, contributes to the acquisition of skills in working with literature, analyzing and summarizing literary sources in order to determine the range of insufficiently studied problems, determining the content and methods of experimental research, processing skills and qualitative analysis of the results obtained. The need to complete coursework in speech therapy is due to the updating of knowledge concerning the content, organization, principles, methods and techniques of speech therapy work.
As a rule, during their studies, students must write two term papers - theoretical and practical.
The first course work should be devoted to the analysis and synthesis of general and specialized literature on the chosen topic. Based on this analysis, it is necessary to justify and develop a method of ascertaining (diagnostic) experiment.
In the second course work, it is necessary to provide an analysis of the results obtained during the ascertaining experiment, as well as determine the directions and content of speech therapy work, and select adequate methods and techniques of correction.
So, let’s present the general requirements for the content and design of coursework in speech therapy.
The initial and most important stage of working on a course project is the choice of a topic, which is either proposed by the supervisor or chosen by the student independently from a list of topics that are consistent with the areas of scientific research of the department.
Each topic can be modified, considered in different aspects, but taking into account a theoretical and practical approach. Having chosen a topic, the student needs to think through in detail its specific content, areas of work, practical material, etc., which should be reflected both in the formulation of the topic and in the further construction of the study. It should be recalled that the chosen topic may not only have a purely theoretical orientation, for example: “Dysarthria. Characteristics of the defect”, “Classification of dysgraphia”, but also take into account the practical significance of the problem under consideration, for example: “Speech therapy work on speech correction for dysarthria”. It should also be taken into account that when formulating a topic, excessive detail should be avoided, for example: “Formation of prosodic components of speech in preschoolers of the sixth year of life attending a preschool institution for children with severe speech impairments.”
The course work includes such mandatory parts as: introduction, three chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendix.
The text of the term paper begins with the title page . An example of its design can be seen here.
Then the content of the work is given, in which the names of chapters, paragraphs, and sections are formulated in strict accordance with the content of the thesis. An example of its design can be seen here.
In the text, each subsequent chapter and paragraph begins on a new page. At the end of each chapter, the materials are summarized and conclusions are formulated.
The introduction reveals the relevance of the problem under consideration in general and the topic being studied in particular; the problem, subject, object, and purpose of the study are defined. In accordance with the goal and hypothesis, objectives and a set of research methods aimed at achieving the objectives must be defined.
The relevance of the topic lies in reflecting the current level of pedagogical science and practice, meeting the requirements of novelty and usefulness.
When defining the research problem, it is important to indicate what practical tasks it will help to implement in training and educating people with speech pathology.
The object of research is understood as certain aspects of pedagogical reality, perceived through a system of theoretical and practical knowledge. The ultimate goal of any research is to improve this object.
The subject of research is some part, property, element of an object, i.e. the subject of research always indicates a specific aspect of the object that is to be studied and about which the researcher wants to gain new knowledge. An object is a part of an object.
You can give an example of the formulation of the object, subject and problem of research:
– The object of the study is the speech activity of preschool children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.
– The subject of the study is the features of intonation speech of children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.
– The research problem is to determine effective directions for speech therapy work on the formation of intonation expressiveness of speech in the system of correctional intervention.
The purpose of the study contributes to the specification of the object being studied. The goal of any research is to solve a specific problem. The goal is specified in tasks taking into account the subject of research.
The research objectives are formulated in a certain sequence, which determines the logic of the research. The research objectives are set on the basis of a theoretical analysis of the problem and an assessment of the state of its solution in practice.
The first chapter is an analysis of literary sources, which examines the state of this problem in historical and modern aspects, and presents the most important theoretical principles that formed the basis of the study.
When writing the first chapter, you should pay attention to the fact that the text of the course work must be written in a scientific style. When presenting scientific material, it is necessary to comply with the following requirements:
– Specificity – a review of only those sources that are necessary to disclose only a given topic or solve only a given problem;
– Clarity – which is characterized by semantic coherence and integrity of individual parts of the text;
– Logicality – which provides for a certain structure of presentation of the material;
– Reasoning – evidence of thoughts (why this and not otherwise);
– Precision of wording, excluding ambiguous interpretation of the authors’ statements.
A literary review of the state of the problem being studied should not be reduced to a consistent presentation of literary sources. It should present a generalized description of the literature: highlight the main directions (currents, concepts, points of view), analyze in detail and evaluate the most fundamental works of representatives of these directions.
When writing a work, the student must correctly use literary materials, make references to the authors and sources from which the results of scientific research are borrowed. Failure to provide required references will reduce your coursework grade.
As a rule, in coursework on speech therapy, references to literary sources are formatted as follows: the number of the cited source in the general list of references is placed in square brackets. For example: General speech underdevelopment is a speech pathology in which there is a persistent lag in the formation of all components of the language system: phonetics, vocabulary and grammar [17].
When using quotations, in square brackets, in addition to indicating the source number, the page number from which this excerpt is taken is indicated, for example: Speech rhythm is based on a physiological and intellectual basis, since, firstly, it is directly related to the rhythm of breathing. Secondly, being an element that performs a communicative function, “correlates with meaning, i.e. controlled intellectually” [23, P.40].
However, course work should not be of a purely abstract nature, so you should not abuse the unreasonable abundance of citations. Quoting should be logically justified, convincing and used only when really necessary.
In the second chapter , devoted to experimental research, the organization should be described and the program of the ascertaining experiment should be presented. The survey methodology, as a rule, consists of a description of several series of tasks, with detailed instructions, visual and lexical material, the procedure for completing tasks by experiment participants, and scoring criteria. This chapter also provides a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the results obtained.
When analyzing the results of an experiment, it is necessary to use a scoring system. Examples of various criteria for quantitative and qualitative assessment are presented in the following works:
– Glukhov V.P. Formation of coherent speech in preschool children with general speech underdevelopment. - M.: Arkti, 2002. - 144 p.
– Fotekova T.A. Test methodology for diagnosing oral speech of primary schoolchildren. - M.: Arkti, 2000. - 56 p.
– Levchenko I.Yu. Pathopsychology: Theory and practice. - M.: Academy, 2000. - 232 p.
In order to visually present the results obtained during the experimental study, it is recommended to use tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. Histograms can be used in a variety of ways - columnar, cylindrical, planar, volumetric, etc. An example of the design of tables, figures, and histograms can be found here.
The third chapter provides a rationale for the proposed methods and techniques and reveals the content of the main stages of correctional work.
The conclusion contains a summary of the material presented and the main conclusions formulated by the author.
The bibliography must contain at least 25 sources. The list includes bibliographic information about the sources used in preparing the work. An example of its design can be seen here.
In the application you can present bulky tables or illustrations, examination protocols, observation records, products of activity (drawings, written works of children), notes from speech therapy classes, etc.
The volume of one course work must be at least 30 pages of typewritten text.
In general, coursework in speech therapy is the basis for a future thesis, in which the study of the begun problem can be continued, but from the standpoint of a different approach or a comparative analysis of the disorders being studied in different age categories of people with different types of speech disorders.
The content and format of theses in speech therapy can be found here.
Literature:
1. How to write a term paper on speech therapy: Methodological recommendations. Educational and methodological manual / Comp. Artemova E.E., Tishina L.A. / Ed. Orlova O.S. – M.: MGOPU, 2008. – 35 p.
2. Research work of students in the system of higher professional pedagogical education (specialty 031800 - Speech therapy). Methodological recommendations for completing the thesis / Compiled by. L.V. Lopatina, V.I. Lipakova, G.G. Golubeva. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen, 2002. - 140 p.
Equipment for organizing cognitive activities of children
In the subject space of preschool and school educational institutions, there should be a place for experimenting with materials available to children. These include water, sand, clay, soil. Experiments that reveal the properties of air are also very interesting for children. Optical and acoustic phenomena captivate children no less. Children can observe the germination of seeds and the further development of plants, the behavior of domestic animals independently or together with a teacher.
Children's cognitive activity will develop more effectively if teachers take care of equipping the educational process. In the classroom, it is imperative to use a variety of natural objects, materials for sensory development, simple measuring instruments, and visual aids with illustrations of the world of things and events. Mechanical, electronic, hourglasses will help your child learn to navigate time intervals. Manipulations with lever scales, a stadiometer, a magnifying glass, and a microscope are very interesting for preschoolers and primary schoolchildren and can lead the child to unexpected discoveries.
Cognitive activity of preschool children
The Federal State Educational Standard identifies cognitive and research work as the type of activity that is most consistent with solving problems designed to develop the child. Its correct organization contributes to the development of logical thinking, the formation of emotional and sensory experience, and the enrichment of vocabulary. The sensitive period for the development of cognitive activity, according to scientists, is the period of preschool childhood. It is at this time that the child experiences an urgent need for new experiences. Based on this feature of a preschooler, teachers and parents should build communication with the child in such a way as to most effectively develop the cognitive activity of the future schoolchild.
Activity and cognitive processes
| Cognitive mental processes: sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination, speech - act as the most important components of activity. Mental processes do not just participate in activity, they develop, are formed in it, and acquire their most important qualities. At the same time, they themselves represent special types of activities. Research has shown that for a sensation to arise, it is not enough for the body to be subjected to the appropriate influence of a material stimulus, but some work of the body itself is also necessary. This work can be expressed either only in internal processes, or also in external movements, but it must always be there. The sensation arises as a result of the transformation of the specific energy of the stimulus currently acting on the receptor into the energy of nervous processes. Thus, sensation is not only a component of the sensory image, but also an activity or component of it. Sensation as a mental phenomenon is impossible in the absence of a response from the body or in its inadequacy. In this sense, a motionless eye is as blind as a motionless hand ceases to be an instrument of knowledge. The sense organs are closely connected with the organs of movement, which perform not only adaptive, executive functions, but are also directly involved in the processes of obtaining information. In the process of practical activity, the main types of perception are formed, namely: perception of depth, direction and speed of movement, perception of time and space. The child’s practical manipulation with three-dimensional, nearby and distant objects reveals to him the fact that objects and space have certain dimensions: height, depth, width. As a result, a person learns to perceive and evaluate forms. Tracking movements of the hand and eye, accompanied by synergistic, coordinated contractions of certain muscle groups, contribute to the formation of the perception of movement and its direction. Changes in the speed of moving objects are automatically reproduced in the acceleration and deceleration of contractions of certain muscle groups, and this trains the senses to perceive speed. Perception is the process of constructing an image of a perceived object or phenomenon. This process is carried out using special, perceptual actions, the purpose of which is to identify the key elements of the future image and their subsequent combination into a holistic image. For simplicity, let us take the process of constructing an image of the shape of an object that is felt by the hand, although the same could be said about the more complex process of visual perception and constructing an image in the visual system. Suppose that the object whose shape we want to know is a triangular pyramid. Let us imagine that a person in the dark touches the side surface of a given object and, moving along it in different directions, learns that the surface he is touching is part of a plane. As a result of the corresponding perceptual action, he recreates one of the elements of the future image. The person’s hand moves further and, reaching the edge of the pyramid, moves along it back and forth. In both directions of movement, the hand further reaches the corners of the pyramid and stops. Thus, the next element of the future image is recreated - the edge, which is a straight line segment. The person’s hand moves further in different directions along the corresponding lateral plane of the pyramid, each time reaching the next edge and feeling it. The human consciousness is convinced that the pyramid has only three sides, and the surface it feels is a triangle. As a result, one of the most important elements of the future image of the pyramid turns out to be built - its flat, triangular face. By repeating the corresponding actions in relation to the other two faces, a person understands that there are only four such faces and they are all the same. And since he already has a feeling of some three-dimensional figure and a theoretical idea of what a triangular pyramid is, then the combination of the resulting sensations - the knowledge that there are only four triangular faces in the palpated figure - convinces the person that he really has in his hands there is a triangular pyramid. So, in this example we are dealing with a process that is a real perceptual activity, which is a process of perception and includes purposeful actions and operations aimed at solving the problem of constructing an image. This also applies to memory, and to its two main processes simultaneously: memorization and reproduction. Memorization is carried out in activity and itself represents a special kind of mnemonic activity, which contains actions and operations aimed at preparing the material for better memorization (comprehension, structuring, associating the material with known facts, including various objects and movements in the memorization process, etc. ). Recall also involves performing certain actions aimed at promptly and accurately recalling the material imprinted in memory. It is known that conscious reproduction of activities makes the material easier to remember. When memorizing or restoring any information in memory, a person also performs corresponding actions and operations, but this time they are called mnemonic actions and operations. For example, in order to better remember material, a person can arrange it so that this material forms a known, easily remembered structure. Let's give a clear example. The figure shows a random set of segments of various lines, which are quite difficult to remember. But if we arrange these same lines into a simple, easily memorized and recognizable drawing and call it “a soldier with a dog and a gun, walking behind a fence,” then we will not only immediately and quickly remember all these segments of lines, but we will also be able to easily recall them.
External activity, as a result of its special transformations aimed at reducing and automating individual links, their transformation into skills, gradually turns into internal, actually mental. Such internalized mental processes are cognitive processes voluntary and mediated by speech: perception, attention, memory, imagination and thinking. On the other hand, all of these mental processes necessarily include some external, usually motor, components. Visual perception, for example, is inextricably linked with eye movements, touch - with hand movements, attention - with muscle contractions, which determine its concentration, switchability and absent-mindedness. Speech activity is impossible without movements of the larynx and facial muscles. Thus, any activity is a combination of internal and external, mental and behavioral actions and operations. |
Principles used
In order for the educational and cognitive activity of children to be most effective, the teacher must remember certain principles when organizing his work. Their use will make the entire learning process creative and very exciting.
First of all, we are talking about the principle of unity of the emotional and intellectual. Compliance with its conditions will help develop creative skills that will contribute to the child’s desire to understand the world around him and attempts to transform it.
Teaching methods
The cognitive activity of preschoolers and primary schoolchildren directly depends on the methods used by the teacher during classes with children. The methods selected for teaching should take into account the activities of the teacher and students and determine the level of interaction between an adult and a child.
The child, striving for knowledge, performs actions related to the intellectual, volitional, emotional, and motivational spheres. Taking all this into account, the teacher selects those methods that will help the student move forward in his development. At the same time, spontaneity in the actions of the teacher and student should be avoided. The development of a child’s cognitive activity should be predictable and planned. To do this, the teacher must carefully select methodological techniques and understand the impact each of them has on the student.
The most successful methods used are the teacher’s story, children’s observation of his actions, drawing, listening to works of various genres, watching educational films, and children’s practical actions related to conducting experiments and research of a very different nature.
True
Scientific knowledge and cognitive activity are associated with the criterion of truth to which they should strive.
Truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to reality. Verify the truth of knowledge through observation or experiment.
Types of truth:
- relative (knowledge relating only to some part of the subject, limited);
- absolute (complete reliable knowledge about something).
Let us dwell in more detail on scientific knowledge, as the closest to the truth, and the forms of organization of its acquisition.
Scientific knowledge:
- objective (corresponds to reality);
- justified (confirmed by experiment, has evidence);
- systematically (orderly, expressed in the form of theory);
- verifiable (can always be re-verified using observation, reasoning, experiment).
Levels of scientific knowledge:
- empirical (the researcher has a connection with the subject being studied, using observation, description, comparison, experiment);
- theoretical (the researcher imagines the subject or process being studied in his imagination, using modeling and analogy).
The child is a participant in the learning process
Activation of children's cognitive activity is necessary to obtain positive dynamics in children's development. It will be more successful if the child begins to recognize himself as a full participant in the learning process. At the same time, the teacher must structure the lesson with the child in such a way that it is clear to him where he is moving in his development, what this or that method of educational work gives him.
All exercises through which a child’s cognitive activity develops must indicate not only the sequence of performing certain tasks, but also contain explanations that describe the student’s intellectual actions. As well as an explanation of how these activities contribute to the child's development. Constantly focusing attention on this allows children to develop such qualities as self-control and introspection, which is very important in the educational and cognitive process.
COGNITIVE PROCESS AS A MEANS OF LEARNING
The cognitive process is an internal, unique process of the personality itself, affecting its most significant aspects. Its essence lies in the student’s desire to penetrate deeper and more thoroughly into the subject.
Cognitive interest greatly influences the pedagogical process and is considered as an external stimulus of the pedagogical process, as a means of activating the student’s cognitive activity and an effective tool for the teacher.
The cognitive interest of students is primarily influenced by the skill of the teacher.
It should be taken into account that
A) the cognitive process as a means of learning may not always have the effect that is important for cognitive interest as a property of the student’s personality.
B) the essence of the cognitive process (see above) should not be replaced by other, albeit no less important, stimuli.
You always need to pay attention to the internal processes of students’ cognitive activity; you cannot approach the cognitive process one-sidedly, limiting yourself only to the external sphere.
The cognitive process as a teaching method becomes reliable only when it is used along with the means of developmental training. The teacher must not only introduce elements of revitalization into teaching, but also open up for himself the very processes of cognitive activity.
Fun plays a very important role here. Shchukina pays special attention to this concept.
She argues that different scholars' views on entertaining vary widely. So Ananyev distinguishes between entertaining and interesting activities. Entertaining, according to Ananyev, is effective in a specific situation, while interest activates mental activity in general. Entertaining does not lead to a significant shift in mental activity.
Other scientists (for example, Perelman), on the contrary, attach great importance to entertainment, since it is the main means of popularizing science, which is very important in our time. Entertaining makes complex scientific truths understandable to the uninitiated person, stimulating the process of thinking in him. Perelman saw the meaning of entertaining science in replenishing school training, in warning readers against superficiality and teaching them to know the facts. Entertaining is an additional means for those who have just set out on the path of studying a particular science, a means that makes the mind work. Perelman does not oppose entertaining to interest, but considers it an integral part of interesting learning.
Shchukina, rather, considers entertaining as a means of attracting interest in a subject or learning process, which contributes to the transition of cognitive interest from the stage of simple orientation, situational episodic interest, to the stage of a more stable cognitive attitude.
Entertaining, as a rule, is associated with interesting aspects of things, phenomena, processes affecting a person.
Some elements of entertainment evoke a feeling of surprise, which is essentially the beginning of all knowledge and the strongest stimulants of the cognitive process and, therefore, they are extremely important in the pedagogical process. These are the following elements:
1) novelty
2) unusual
3) surprise
4) strangeness
5) inconsistency with previous ideas
That is, entertainment as a stimulus for cognitive interest, as a means of learning and as a means of popularizing scientific knowledge, on the one hand, makes scientific knowledge accessible, on the other hand, contributes to the better flow of a person’s cognitive processes and the activation of his thinking.
However, entertainment can have different effects, it can
1) be emotive and last a short time
2) lead to sustainable cognitive interest
In some cases, entertainment can even be a hindrance to learning, since it causes a strong emotional reaction - a sign of interest, but does not stimulate a deeper study of the subject. Therefore, the content of science should in no case be sacrificed for entertainment.
Thus, there are different positions regarding entertaining: entertaining is an obstacle to learning and entertaining is a necessary element of learning. Shchukina is trying to combine these two views, arguing that entertainment is an important and at the same time quite sharp means of learning.
To use entertainment correctly, you need to know what the purpose of entertainment may be in the educational process:
1) It can be the initial impetus for cognitive interest, a kind of springboard to in-depth cognitive activity.
2) It can serve as a support for emotional memory, a means of remembering especially difficult sections and topics of training courses.
3) Sometimes a teacher successfully uses entertainment as a kind of release from a tense situation in the classroom as a means of switching emotions, influence, and thoughts.
4) It is also used as a means of increasing the emotional tone of students’ educational activities and mobilizing their attention.
When using entertainment, we must not forget about the true learning goals.
2) COGNITIVE PROCESS AS A MOTIVE FOR LEARNING ACTIVITY
The most significant manifestation of the cognitive process is its appearance as a motive for educational activity. Cognitive interest always has its own subject; it clearly expresses the focus on a specific subject area, to a deeper knowledge of which the student strives.
The motive expresses the influence of the objective world on a person. However, for the formation of motives, only external incentives are not enough; external incentives must be based on the needs of the individual himself. Only that which is of interest to the individual himself is fixed and affirmed in the motive.
There are also different points of view regarding the nature of motives.
Leontyev, for example, believes that the objective basis of the motive lies in the external world. Nytten believes that motive is a person’s internal orientation, which is directed towards what he needs.
As a motive for learning, cognitive interest has a number of advantages over other motives that can exist together and alongside it. As a motive for learning, cognitive interest has the following characteristics:
1. According to research cited by Shchukina, cognitive interest appears among other motives for a student’s learning as a motive that is given preference.
2. A feature of cognitive interest as a motive for a student’s learning is also the fact that it seems to combine the plan of known and real motives.
Based on the research materials, it can be established that cognitive interest as a motive for learning is “the most personal.” That is, the teenager is guided by it directly, constantly and every day. Cognitive interest encourages real action and therefore appears in pedagogical phenomena both as a goal and as a means.
Cognitive interest as a motive does not carry such potential dangers as, for example, social motives, which are often verbal and can have a negative impact on the learning process. True, there is a danger that the independence of the student’s actions will become dependent on cognitive interest (as the Polish psychologist Tomashevsky believes), but this is only true in relation to situational interest prompted by entertainment. As for sustainable cognitive interest, it is largely due to internal motivation and is not so susceptible to change.
3. A feature of cognitive interest as a motive for learning, according to Shchukina, is that it is recognized by the student earlier and more clearly than other motives.
4. Shchukina believes that the term “disinterested” is extremely important to characterize cognitive interest, since activity under the influence of cognitive interest causes the deepest satisfaction.
5. Being a strong motive for learning, cognitive interest, creating an “internal environment” of development, significantly changes the activity itself, thus the student becomes not only an object, but also a subject of education.
6. Like any motive, cognitive interest is not isolated, it develops in the circle of other motives and interacts with them. For example, there is a close connection between social motives, as well as moral and cognitive interests.
3. COGNITIVE INTEREST AS A STABLE PERSONALITY TRAIN
And finally, cognitive interest can act as a stable personality quality.
Curiosity, “thirst for knowledge,” readiness for knowledge are all different expressions of a person’s cognitive orientation, which is based on cognitive interest.
Cognitive interest, constantly functioning in the student’s activities, interacts with stable modes of behavior, becoming more and more consolidated, ultimately becoming a stable character trait and determining the student’s activity in learning.
The formation of this personality trait has an unusually beneficial effect on the entire development of the student.
The transformation of the initial cognitive attitude into a stable personality trait occurs in the general process of personality formation, in the course of training and upbringing. Gaining stability, cognitive interest becomes one of the main forces of mental development and behavior (Ananyev).
Cognitive motives at the stage of their formation may not act as a desire to master theoretical knowledge in any subject area. Students' interest can be directed to the applied part of relevant knowledge.
It is interesting that the process of developing cognitive interest as a stable personality trait occurs more effectively in a team. Being a stable personality trait, cognitive interest determines the nature of not only cognitive, but also social orientation, and contributes to the formation of the individual’s attitude to reality. Cognitive interest develops, first of all, in the activities of the student, where his cognitive attitude to reality is formed. The full development of cognitive interest occurs in the general structure of the personality and in close connection with other motives, then it contributes to the spiritual enrichment of the individual and the healthy intellectualization of activity.
Research shows that not every teenager has cognitive interest and is of a different nature. In addition, cognitive interest has a different nature: local or broad, aimed at many subjects.
Play in teaching young children
Activation of children's cognitive activity is always observed when the teacher takes play as an ally. It is known that it is the leading activity for a preschool child. The game does not lose its significance for children of primary school age.
But the teacher must remember that the organization of cognitive activity through the game method presupposes the fulfillment of certain conditions: - the content of the games must be educational in nature; — the game pursues the solution of a specific educational task; — the novelty and attractiveness of the game plot is the main condition for the effectiveness of using the technique; - children should take part in creating a new game for themselves.
Creative homework
Properly organized cognitive and research activities gradually develop in children a thirst for creativity and a need for knowledge. At this point, you can offer them to independently carry out work related to research, searching for information, putting forward hypotheses, and so on. Children actively take on such work at home.
If, as a result of homework, a child acquires new knowledge, makes unusual assumptions, shows a desire to discuss, prove, listen to friends, then we can say that the students’ cognitive activity is developing in the right direction.
The organization of educational and cognitive activities of children at home lies entirely on the shoulders of parents. They should support and encourage the child to be active. By their direct participation in the matter they show the importance of the work that the child is doing.
Knowledge is power, said the English philosopher Bacon. Knowledge is necessary for a person in all types of activities. From the flow of information, a person assimilates only a certain part. This part is actually the knowledge that we have mastered. In general, our knowledge is quite diverse; it is knowledge about objects and how to use them. A special type of knowledge consists of our ideas about how knowledge itself is formed, where people get their indisputable ideas. Knowledge does not arise on its own; it is the result of a special process, the cognitive activity of people. Ancient man, hunting and observing the habits of wild animals, acquired useful information that helped him in their further domestication. A child who breaks glass learns that it is fragile, these situations show that learning can occur involuntarily, woven into the fabric of our daily lives. Other examples: a zoologist conducts research to identify the characteristics of the reproduction of wild animals in captivity. A grown-up child at school studies the properties of solids in physics lessons. Here we are talking about a specially organized cognitive process.
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The process of cognition, no matter how it proceeds, always presupposes the presence of two sides: the cognizing person (the subject of cognition) and the cognizable object (the object of cognition). They relate to each other. A person experiences the world through the senses: sight, smell, touch, hearing, taste. Man's sensory cognition of the world is carried out in such forms as sensation, perception, and representation. Sensation is what we perceive through our senses. The impact on the senses of a holistic image of an object is called perception. The sensory image of objects and phenomena preserved in consciousness without their direct influence is called representation. A cognizing person cannot limit himself to sensory knowledge; he penetrates into the essence of things using the ability to think. This is rational knowledge. The thinking process proceeds through mental operations: comparison, assimilation, generalization, abstraction. The process of thinking and its presentation in speech form is not two independent processes that follow each other, but a single one. The form of thought in which something is affirmed or denied through the connection of concepts is called a judgment.
In human speech, judgments are logically interconnected. A person comes to a conclusion or conclusion.
Scientific knowledge is based on such sources of knowledge as reason, it is based on the results of science and experiments, the form of scientific knowledge is theory. Many laws of science initially arise in the form of hypotheses. Forms of non-scientific knowledge include myths, practical activities, folk wisdom and common sense.
Sometimes non-scientific knowledge is based on sources such as feeling, leading to so-called revelations, or metaphysical insights; an example of non-scientific knowledge is faith. There is non-scientific knowledge through the means of art, which creates an artistic image.
Encouraging the child
Cognitive and research activity is also activated in cases where children experience positive emotions. To form them, a wide variety of methods are used, for example, recognition of the child, approval of his actions by an adult, encouragement, and praise.
The negative experiences that a child experiences during the learning process can “close” his abilities for any type of activity. The task of a teacher striving for the development of his students is to focus on the student’s achievements, and not on his mistakes.
Sensory and rational cognition
At the moment of assimilation of knowledge, each person uses a certain structure, the same for all people . It is based on the senses, as structural elements of cognitive abilities, identically involved, dictating the general laws of cognition.
The knowledge of each person includes 2 steps:
- sensory (empirical) – considering sensations, perceptions and ideas as the main form of genuine comprehension. This is the case when a person himself understands what is happening;
- rational - considering reason as the support, source and main measure of the reliability and infallibility of human aspirations. In this situation, a person not only understands, but is also able to explain and even prove what he understands to another.
Sensory cognition includes three multi-level forms, established from lower to higher:
- sensation;
- perception;
- performance.
Sensations are primary information about objects obtained with the help of analyzers; they are also the most primitive and do not reflect the integrity of the object:
- color;
- smell;
- taste;
- tactile sensations.
Perception is already a combination of several sensations and a more complex form of sensory acquisition. Fragmentary sensations merge into a holistically defined image. There is a separation of one object from another. Through perception, an adequate recognition of an object and the relationship of its images are achieved.
Representation is a transitional link between sensory and rational comprehension, containing sensory and rational elements of study. Its specific feature is the separation of the image from the object: the ability to represent the object in its absence. The ability to mentally operate an object without direct contact with it. In other words: use imagination and fantasy in relation to the object.
The prerequisites for rationality are:
- separation of thought from the subject;
- thinking as the completion of the generalization process, the formation of abstract concepts: matter, mass, time, space.
Rational cognition as a thinking process includes 3 forms of one-level order:
- concept;
- judgment;
- inference.
However, such a process is not feasible without such specific techniques of abstract logical thinking as:
- comparison;
- analysis;
- synthesis;
- induction;
- deduction;
- idealization;
- abstraction.
Thanks to them, conclusions are drawn. By comparing, analyzing and synthesizing the data obtained, a person forms his own conclusions. Comparison is the main method of mental activity.
Both stages are in organic unity, interconnection and interpenetration, passing into one another like a diffuse phenomenon. The system of human analyzers, as a stage of sensory development, is created for the perception of sensations, and rational thinking is created for forming conclusions based on the information received. This allows us to obtain the most objective conclusions while constantly pursuing the main goal of knowledge - the search for truth.
Replenishment of active vocabulary
Cognitive activities of schoolchildren and preschool children can be organized by teachers and parents in various educational, gaming, and everyday situations. Regardless of this, adults need to try to introduce into the child’s vocabulary as many words and concepts as possible that will help him in his further research, cognitive, and educational work.
Examples of such expressions are the following: “opposite”, “on the contrary”, “transformation”. The assimilation of their meanings occurs by familiarizing children with pairs of antonyms: cold - hot, fast - slow, high - low, and many other words. In everyday life, it is necessary to draw children's attention to situations where opposites can be distinguished.
The use of the words “was”, “became” and “will” in speech fixes in the minds of children such an important action as transformation. Its awareness occurs through the practical actions of children with plasticine, paper, water and other available materials and substances.
Perception of new material
Learning new material begins with the perception of the material being studied. The essence of perception can be characterized as follows: students, with the help of their senses, perceive the external features, characteristics and signs of the phenomena and objects being studied.
The result of perception is the formation of ideas that constitute the lowest form of knowledge. Representation is the preservation in the student’s mind of external images of phenomena and objects perceived by him.
Representations are considered the lowest form of cognition because they record only the external characteristics of phenomena and objects, but their essence is not revealed.
In scientific knowledge, as well as in teaching, it is necessary to reveal the essence of phenomena and objects. Even in Ancient Greece, Aristotle wrote that scientific knowledge is fundamentally different from perception and representation. From the perception that its subject is necessary and universal, and not accidental and individual, but from the representation that its judgment is always true.
What is understanding as a cognitive action? The Russian language dictionary says that to realize something means to understand, to reveal its meaning and significance.
Comprehension as a cognitive action is a mental understanding of the circumstances and consequences that are contained in the phenomena and objects being studied, clarification of the essence of the phenomena and the formation of various theoretical generalizations on this basis.
This process includes the following mental operations:
- analysis of perceived external signs and properties of the phenomena and objects being studied;
- logical sorting of the properties and characteristics of the phenomena and objects being studied and identifying from them the most common and essential phenomena and objects for all of this kind;
- mental understanding of the essence of the phenomena and objects being studied and the formulation of theoretical concepts and conclusions;
- checking the validity and truth of the derived theoretical concepts.
Project activity as a way to develop knowledge
Correctly organized project activity of children assumes that the solution to the task assigned to the child does not occur immediately, but only after certain research actions. Their result should be several answers found. Choosing the optimal option is the next step in the child’s actions.
The solution to the problem can be depicted in the form of a drawing, diagram, verbal description, photographs, and so on. The important thing is that the child must retain in his mind all the answers found, analyze them, compare them with each other, identify all the advantages and disadvantages, and only then choose the most successful one.
The next stage will be drawing up an action plan, choosing material, how to design the work, and determining the circle of people who will be involved in joint activities. In all this work, the task of adults is to convince the child that educational and cognitive activities can be as exciting and interesting as a regular game or any other entertaining activity. Experiencing pleasure from the process of learning something new is what you need to lead your child to.
Specifics of human cognitive activity. The problem of truth
A person’s cognitive attitude to reality is an important element of the entire system of his relations to the world. Cognition must be considered as a socio-historical process of human activity, the content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his consciousness. In the most general form, cognition can be interpreted as human activity in acquiring knowledge about the world around us, about man himself, about the relationship between man and nature, man and society, etc.
The specificity of a person’s cognitive relationship to the world is that as a result of this relationship, the objects of reality are translated into an ideal-sign form, deobjectified and acquire the status of knowledge.
Human cognition of objective reality occurs in various types and specific forms. The main types of cognition of objective reality can be presented as:
• Knowledge - information about the objective world of nature and society,
• Knowledge about the inner spiritual-psychic world of man,
•Knowledge about the goals, objectives, programs (ideal-theoretical) for the transformation of the natural and socio-cultural world.
The implementation of a person’s cognitive relationship to the world presupposes the presence of developed forms of consciousness that are realized in culture, thus, the formation and development of cognition must be considered in relation to the development of human culture, the formation of its main phenomena. In this regard, the main forms (types) of spiritual-theoretical and spiritual-practical cognitive activity of a person usually include everyday knowledge, mythological, religious, artistic and figurative (through art), philosophical, scientific.
Ordinary or individual knowledge is formed in the process of everyday activity on the basis of personal experience and generalization, assimilation of socially significant knowledge. The specificity of this type of cognition lies in the fact that its content is primarily associated with information about individual objects and situations. In form it is predominantly figurative, although an element of logical and rational is also present in it. This type of cognitive activity represents the most information-capacious form of knowledge. The sphere of everyday knowledge is diverse. It includes common sense, beliefs, generalizations, personal experience, etc., enshrined in traditions, legends, etc., as well as intuitive beliefs and premonitions. Representing a generalization of periodic phenomena and processes, everyday knowledge forms the basis of a practical life position, i.e. man's relationship to the world.
Everyday knowledge allows us to organize everyday human activity and is fundamental for man as a natural-social being. Ordinary knowledge in relation to scientific knowledge is prerequisite; on the other hand, scientific knowledge, invading the area of everyday life, modifies ordinary knowledge, reconstructs it on a scientific basis.
Mythological knowledge played a significant role, especially at the initial stage of the formation of humanity. It represents a fantastic and artistic comprehension of reality. Within the framework of mythology, humanity consolidated the first knowledge and ideas about nature, space, and man. Mythological thinking is associated with a special model of the world, expressed in myth; its features are metaphorical and artistic concreteness of thinking, antinomy, perception of nature in its harmony and cyclical development.
The artistic-figurative form of knowledge (or art) is initially closely related to the mythological, however, as it develops, it goes far beyond the scope of myth. Art contains powerful cognitive potential. Artistically mastering reality in its various forms (painting, music, theater, etc.), art simultaneously cognizes the world and “creates” it, transforming the world according to the laws of beauty. The basis of artistic knowledge is the artistic image, which combines the rational and irrational, the sensual and the theoretical.
Religious knowledge is conditioned by the idea of confrontation between the divine (“heavenly”) and earthly (human) worlds. Like mythology, religion contains much of the knowledge of mankind, but does not reproduce knowledge in a systematic and, especially, theoretical form. The most important problem for religious knowledge is the problem of truth as revelation, as communion with the divine absolute. Religious knowledge is characterized by the phenomenon of faith, an emotional attitude towards the world, and the focus of knowledge in the cult.
The most important type of cognitive activity is scientific knowledge. Science studies the general and necessary in processes and phenomena, but since the general exists only in the individual and through the individual, then, naturally, the accidental and the individual are studied by science as a means and path to comprehending the general and necessary. Scientific knowledge is distinguished from ordinary knowledge by its logical organization, the coherence of the truth expressed in it, as well as systematicity as a demonstration of the need for the interconnection of its internal elements, which ensures a rational-logical reconstruction of the essence of things. In form, scientific knowledge is concentrated in general concepts, i.e. this knowledge is logical, conceptual and systemic
Philosophical knowledge has spiritual and practical guidelines as its main component. Philosophical knowledge strives to combine scientific and everyday personal; this organic combination of scientific-theoretical and practical-spiritual explains the specifics of philosophy as a unique form of knowledge, the purpose of which is to develop a strategy for human life, to determine the place of man in the world around him. Philosophical knowledge strives to express the life-meaning and value foundations of human existence.
In the process of cognition, a person not only forms knowledge, but also evaluates it. Knowledge can be assessed in terms of its applicability, usefulness, importance, relevance, etc. The word “truth” can be used not only to evaluate knowledge, but also to characterize things and phenomena: true friendship, beauty, genius. Here “true” means “real, genuine.”
Truth is knowledge that corresponds to its subject.
Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to reality, an undistorted reflection of any objects in our mind, the opposite of lies, fidelity, authenticity.
Truth is truth in practice, justice.
A lie is the deliberate elevation of deliberately untrue ideas into the truth.
Disinformation is the transmission of objectively false knowledge as true.
Misconception is an unintentional discrepancy between judgments and concepts and an object, false knowledge accepted as true.
People tend to be deluded and make mistakes. There is always some element of subjectivity in their knowledge, which is determined by:
– peculiarities of perception of reality by the senses;
– human stereotypes;
– individual interests, likes, mood.
People often tend to engage in wishful thinking; emotions, drives, and impulses can blind a person so much that he loses the ability to objectively judge things.
Truth is the goal towards which knowledge is directed. But what is truth, true knowledge? Throughout the development of philosophy, a number of options for answering this most important question in the theory of knowledge have been proposed.
Aristotle: truth is the correspondence of knowledge to an object, reality.
R. Descartes: the most important sign of true knowledge is clarity.
For Plato and Hegel, truth appears as the agreement of reason with itself, since knowledge is the revelation of the spiritual, rational fundamental principle of the world.
D. Berkeley, Mach, Avenarius: truth is the result of the coincidence of the perceptions of the majority.
The conventional concept of truth considers true knowledge to be the result of convention, agreement.
Pragmatism: truth lies in the usefulness of knowledge, its effectiveness.
There are a number of forms of truth: ordinary or everyday, scientific truth (specific features: consistency, orderliness of knowledge, evidence of knowledge), artistic truth and moral truth.
The key characteristic of truth, its main feature is its objectivity.
Objective truth is the content of our knowledge that does not depend on either man or humanity. (Objective truth - knowledge in full, the content of which fully corresponds to reality)
The process of comprehending truth goes through relative truths, relatively true reflections of an object independent of man, to absolute truth, an accurate and complete, exhaustive reflection of the same object.
We can say that relative truth is a step on the way to absolute truth. Relative truth contains grains of absolute truth, and each step of knowledge forward adds new grains of absolute truth to knowledge about an object.
So, truth alone is objective and at the same time truth is concrete, since it retains its meaning only for certain conditions of time and place, and with their change it can turn into its opposite. (water boils at 1OO°C?)
But knowledge constantly develops in contradictions and through contradictions between truth and error.
Delusion is a content of consciousness that does not correspond to reality, but is accepted as true.
A lie is a deliberate distortion of the actual state of affairs in order to deceive someone.
What is the criterion of truth?
Can practice act as a criterion of truth?
The fact is that in practical activity we measure, compare knowledge with an object, objectify it and thereby establish how much it corresponds to the object.
Of course, not all scientific provisions require practical confirmation. If these provisions are derived from reliable initial provisions according to the laws of logic, then they are also reliable, because the laws and rules of logic have been tested in practice thousands of times.
Practice as a criterion of truth is both absolute and relative. Absolute, since we have no other criterion at our disposal. But this criterion is relative due to the limited practice in each historical period. Thus, practice for centuries could not refute the thesis of the indivisibility of the atom. But with the development of practice and knowledge, this thesis was refuted.
(Truth is an adequate reflection of an object by a cognizing subject, reproducing reality as it is in itself, outside and independently of consciousness).
