Thinking as a higher mental cognitive process. Types, forms, mental operations. educational and methodological material

INTRODUCTION

“Thinking is a tool for a person’s highest orientation in the world around him and in himself.”
I.P. Pavlov. Thinking is a psychological and cognitive process of reflecting in the human mind complex connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. The task of thinking is to reveal relationships between objects, identify connections and separate them from random coincidences. Thinking operates with concepts and assumes the functions of generalization and planning. The concept of thinking is a higher cognitive process, which significantly distinguishes it from other processes that help a person navigate the environment; since this concept traces the totality of all cognitive processes. Thinking is a process, and a complex one, taking place in the human mind and possibly without the manifestation of visible actions.

The difference between thinking and other mental processes of cognition is that it is always associated with an active change in the conditions in which a person finds himself. Thinking is always aimed at solving a problem. In the process of thinking, a purposeful and expedient transformation of reality is carried out. The thinking process is continuous and continues throughout life, transforming along the way due to the influence of factors such as age, social status, and stability of the living environment. The peculiarity of thinking is its indirect nature. What a person cannot know directly, directly, he knows indirectly, indirectly: some properties through others, the unknown through the known. Thinking is distinguished by types, processes and operations. The concept of intelligence is inextricably linked with the concept of thinking. Intelligence is the general ability to understand and solve problems without trial and error, i.e. "in the mind." Intelligence is considered as a level of mental development achieved by a certain age, which is manifested in the stability of cognitive functions, as well as in the degree of mastery of skills and knowledge (according to the words of Zinchenko, Meshcheryakov). Intelligence as an integral part of thinking, its component and, in its own way, a generalizing concept.

The purpose of this test is to consider thinking as a cognitive process.

The tasks to achieve this goal are:

1. Define thinking.
2. Describe types of thinking.
3. Consider basic mental operations and thinking techniques.

7th place - Scorpio

Beware, dangerous moment: Scorpios rarely take offense, but they do so quickly and so accurately that the Norwegian biathlon team can quietly go into a corner and cry with envy. And here’s what’s especially scary: Scorpios profess the principle “They take offense at loved ones, but put others in their place”

So, if Scorpio’s anger has smeared you with a thin layer over the surrounding reality, know: it was you who were put in your place. But if an offended Scorpio has slammed the door to his life in your face and you are senselessly scraping into it, not even receiving a disgusted “Get out!”, you are close. Were.

Attention and memory

The process of cognition can be represented as a ladder, the ascent along which begins with sensations, then moves on to perception, thinking, imagination and ends at the top, which is creativity. But two cognitive processes stand apart

This is attention and memory. They play an auxiliary role and exist only in connection with other cognitive processes

But on the other hand, no intelligent human activity is possible without them.

Attention

This is the concentration of consciousness on external objects and phenomena or on internal processes. In order to perceive something, we must focus on it, and objects that do not fall into the sphere of attention are simply not noticed by us, that is, they are not included in the process of cognition.

There are two main types of attention: voluntary and involuntary.

Involuntary attention occurs on its own, under the influence of specific stimuli. Such concentration, regardless of our desire, is caused by some strong, bright, unusual objects and phenomena, or those that matter to us and are associated with our interests and needs. Voluntary attention is a conscious activity aimed at maintaining concentration on objects that do not arouse interest.

The significance of these objects is determined by the goals and objectives of the activity, and not by their brightness and unusualness. For example, to concentrate on a complex textbook text, you need to make an effort. Voluntary attention is often difficult, so it is necessary to develop conscious concentration skills.

In psychology, attention is considered both as a dynamic side of cognition and as its guide. It is this process that determines the selectivity of our consciousness, not only in terms of cognition, but also in mental activity in general.

Attention is also associated with increased activity in various centers of the brain and makes any of our activities, including cognitive ones, effective and productive. And the loss of the ability to concentrate and concentrate, the involuntary loss of attention is a serious mental illness.

Memory

You already know that the images that arise in the process of perception are unstable. In order for them to be preserved and become part of experience and material for our thinking, the work of memory is necessary

Just like attention, it is not an independent mental process. There is no memory in its pure form, outside, for example, the processes of perception, which supplies information, or thinking, which works with what is stored in memory

All our experience, including professional and sensory-emotional, is the merit of memory. But it also performs other important functions, not only shaping experience, but also establishing a connection between the present and the past. And having lost his memory, a person, along with his memories and accumulated experience, loses his own personality.

There are 4 interconnected processes in memory:

• memorization;
• storing information;
• its reproduction;
• forgetting.

The latter process is also important not only in the field of cognition, but also for maintaining a person’s emotional balance.

Memorizing and storing data is closely related not only to all cognitive processes, but also to the field of activity. To make knowledge easier to remember and retain longer, it must be included in activities: repetition, comprehension, analysis, structuring, use in practice, etc.

Memory is associative in nature, that is, effective memorization occurs through establishing a connection (association) with information we already have. A very interesting and important conclusion follows from this: the more we know, the easier it is to remember new things.

Thus, cognitive processes are a complex system of mental phenomena that ensure the full existence of a person and his relationship with the outside world.

How to grow tomatoes

To grow the Tsarskoe Temptation variety, the seedlings must be hardened off. A week after germination, the temperature is regularly reduced: during the day to 18ºC, and at night to 13ºC. In addition, hardening is performed by ventilating the room.

Landing

Planting seedlings in open ground occurs at a soil temperature of at least 15 ºС and an air temperature of at least 20 ºС.

Seedlings are planted in the greenhouse from mid-April, but the final date is determined by the appearance of the plant: height - at least 20 cm, number of leaves - at least 7, thickness - at least 5 cm.

Care

Taking care of this vegetable crop is a guarantee of qualitative and quantitative results. This variety, despite its royal name, is unpretentious to weather conditions and care during growth and development. But nevertheless, the plant will not be able to grow on its own without outside help.

Watering

First of all, the frequency of watering depends on precipitation. In the absence of rain, the plant is watered once a week, fed every 2 weeks with a mixture whose composition is as follows: ammonium nitrate (15 g), superphosphate (50 g), potassium chloride (40 g) per 10 liters of water. It is also recommended to feed with magnesium once every 2 weeks, and when the first flowers appear, add boron.

Stepsoning

Produced to increase the yield of the bush. In the southern regions, 2 shoots are left - the ovary will have time to ripen during a long warm period. In the northern ones, only one, central, shoot is left. Otherwise, the first frosts will occur before ripening.

The pinching procedure is carried out in the morning.

Tomato bushes need regular weeding and loosening. Loosen the soil after each watering. To keep moisture in the soil longer, it is mulched. Straw or sawdust is used as mulch.

A garter is also necessary, otherwise, under the weight of its own fruits, it will completely lie on the ground. Usually, a support (for example, a wooden stake) is installed next to the bush, to which the top of the plant is tied.

For preventive treatment, systemic-contact fungicides are used: Ditan M-45, Quadris 250. Vegetable crops are sprayed once every 20 days.

1.2. Physiological basis of thinking

Like all mental processes, thinking is an activity of the brain.

The physiological basis of thinking is temporary nerve connections (conditioned reflexes), which are formed in the cerebral cortex. These conditioned reflexes arise under the influence of second signals (words, thoughts), reflecting reality, but they necessarily arise on the basis of the first signal system (sensations, perceptions, ideas).

I.P. Pavlov wrote that “kinesthetic stimuli coming to the cortex from the speech organs are second signals, signals of signals. They represent an abstraction from reality and allow for generalization, which constitutes our superfluous, specifically human, higher thinking...”

That is, the physiological basis of thinking is brain processes at a higher level than those that serve as the basis for more elementary mental processes, such as sensation. However, at present there is no consensus on the significance and order of interaction of all physiological structures that support the thinking process. It is undeniable that the frontal lobes of the brain play a significant role in mental activity as one of the options for purposeful activity. In addition, there is no doubt about the importance of those areas of the cerebral cortex that provide gnostic (cognitive) functions of thinking. There is no doubt that the speech centers of the cerebral cortex are also involved in ensuring the thought process.

Unlike sensations, perceptions and memory, second-signal connections are more complex systems that reflect various relationships between objects and phenomena.

In thinking processes, both signaling systems are closely related to each other. The second signaling system allows for unlimited orientation in the surrounding world; through it, “the highest human adaptation - science” is created.

But the second signaling system relies on the first. If words are deprived of a certain real meaning for a person, if a person cannot correlate them with some specific objects and phenomena, then such words cease to be signals of reality. Thinking proceeds normally only with the participation of both signaling systems, but the leading role remains with the second signaling system, since the word is a signal richer in content and is associated with the processes of abstraction and generalization.

The complexity of studying the physiological foundations of thinking is explained by the fact that in practice thinking as a separate mental process does not exist. Thinking is present in all other cognitive mental processes, including perception, attention, imagination, memory, and speech. All higher forms of these processes, to a certain extent, depending on the level of their development, are associated with thinking.

Thus, thinking is a complex analytical and synthetic activity carried out by the joint work of both signaling systems. Moreover, since thinking is a reflection of reality generalized using a word, the second signaling system plays a leading role in this activity. Constant and close interaction with the first signaling system determines the inextricable connection of the generalized reflection of reality, which is thinking, with sensory knowledge of the objective world through sensations, perceptions, ideas.

Forms

A person can be surrounded by various objects and phenomena. The process of cognition has two features: mediocrity and generality. The first term means that the individual relies on sensations, perceptions and ideas. The second is the ability to combine features and determine which object they are characteristic of. Thinking processes are expressed in different forms.

Concept

When studying a new subject, a person forms ideas about it. This is expressed in verbal form. Concepts can be concrete (apartment, house, cow, etc.) or abstract: good, evil, conscience and others.

With the help of this form of thinking, a person can divide objects according to characteristics.

Judgment

Thought processes are aimed at forming a positive or negative assessment of an object or phenomenon. A judgment can be general, particular or individual. The first group includes conclusions regarding a certain group, for example, “all birds fly.” For the second, only part of the group is assessed: birds of the Passerine family can fly. The third group explains the assessment of one object: the hummingbird flies the fastest.

Inference

Thinking in psychology is not presented as a permanent structure. It develops, and the higher its level, the easier it is for a person to reason. Inference is the ability to draw conclusions based on existing judgments.

A simple example is that dogs have guarding skills. The Central Asian Shepherd is a breed of dog. Based on these judgments, we can draw a conclusion: Central Asian Shepherds are excellent guards.

Not all conclusions can be correct, and a person’s reasoning is not always truthful

The process of such reasoning always looks like short chains. The higher a person’s level of thinking, the faster his cognitive processes occur.

Intelligence

When characterizing a person’s thinking, they primarily imply his intellectual abilities

, i.e. those abilities that ensure a person’s “inclusion” in a fairly wide range of activities and situations. These intellectual abilities of a person are primarily associated with such characteristics as:

“mental development” and;

"intelligence".

Under mental development

is understood as the totality of both knowledge, skills, and mental actions formed in the process of acquiring these skills and knowledge.
The most general characteristic of the level of mental development is the preparedness of the functioning of thinking within the limits of the age-related socio-psychological standard
(SPN).
That is, the level of mental development should reflect the most typical, general, characteristic features of mental activity for a given society, relating to both the volume and quality of knowledge and skills, and the stock of certain mental actions. The level of mental development achieved by a person depends on his intellectual abilities. Intelligence (or general mental ability) is not the sum of knowledge and mental operations, but what contributes to their successful assimilation. If intelligence is a condition for the acquisition of knowledge and skills, then mental development characterizes primarily the content, methods and forms of thinking. Intelligence
is a relatively stable structure of abilities, which are based on processes that ensure the processing of information of different quality and its conscious evaluation.
Intellectual qualities
are personality qualities that predetermine the characteristics of the functioning of the intellect.
In practice, the diagnosis of mental development arose as intelligence testing and developed in this direction throughout the first half of the twentieth century. It has even become quite common to use the Stanford-Binet IQ test as a “generalized” symbol of intelligence and level of mental development. Intelligence quotient (IQ)
is a quantitative indicator indicating the overall level of development of an individual’s thinking compared to the sample on which the intelligence test was standardized.

Bibliography

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2. Wenger L.A., Ibatulina A.A. The relationship between learning, psychological development and functional characteristics of the maturing brain / L.A. Wenger, A.A. Ibatulina // Questions of psychology. - 2008. - No. 2. - P.5 - 9.
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4. Dzheme, U. Psychology / ed. L.A. Petrovsky. - M.: Pedagogy, 2003 - 368 p. (Classics of world psychology).
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6. Dubrovina I.V. Psychology: textbook for students of secondary educational institutions / I.V. Dubrovina, E.E. Danilova, A.M. Parishioners; edited by I.V. Dubrovina. - M.: Academy, 2008. P.122 - 138, 170 - 180.
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8. Karpenko L.A. Brief psychological dictionary / L.A. Karpenko L.A. edited by A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - Rostov n/d.: Phoenix, 2008 - 431 p.
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Mental emotional processes

Let's consider each process separately.

1

Feelings

Feeling is a human emotional process that reflects a subjective evaluative attitude towards abstract or real objects. Feelings manifest differently among people because they are influenced by their own set of individual traits and personality traits. Necessary for communication, friendship and understanding of other people.

Properties of feelings:

2

Emotions

Emotions reflect a subjective evaluative attitude towards objects, phenomena, situations and people. With the help of will, a person can evoke any emotion that he deems necessary.

The properties of emotions completely coincide with the properties of feelings.

3

Stress

Stress is a set of adaptive reactions of the psyche to stressors.

There is positive (eustress) and negative (distress) stress. The difference is in intensity: the more of it in the psyche, the worse.

4

Affects

Affects are emotional processes of an explosive nature. In many cases they are considered a negative manifestation of the psyche, but in a threatening situation they can save lives.

The concept and essence of thinking

Definition 1

Thinking is an intellectual phase in which the brain processes information in order to form a subsequent judgment about an object, phenomenon or situation.

In psychology, thinking is considered as a sequential chain of elements for a person’s processing of certain information.

One of the main features of thinking is its indirect nature and generalizing essence.

The indirect nature of thinking lies in the fact that the individual is not able to think outside of concepts and images. An object or phenomenon is known, as it were, indirectly, through those properties that are known and understandable. Understanding the unknown is carried out through the known.

Thinking is based on the individual’s sensory experience, which consists of sensations, perceptions and ideas. In addition, a person’s existing theoretical knowledge is used in thinking.

Note 1

Thus, indirect knowledge of an object or phenomenon is indirect knowledge. Accordingly, thinking does not involve the acquisition of new knowledge, it consists in the processing and processing of existing knowledge.

The generalizing essence of thinking comes from the first property and lies in comprehension through interrelation with the known.

Generalization as the knowledge of what is essential and general in the objects of the surrounding reality is possible due to the fact that the properties of almost all objects are interrelated with each other. Thus, the general is found in the concrete and separate, but is manifested in the particular.

The generalizations that an individual receives through thinking are expressed by speech (language, words). The verbal expression of a meaningful thing relates not only to a specific object, but also to a group of objects. In addition, images, ideas and perceptions can be generalized. The only limitation that may hinder mental generalization is the lack of clarity. At the same time, verbal generalization is limitless.

Mental operations

Human mental activity is carried out using mental operations: comparison, analysis and synthesis, abstraction, generalization and concretization. All these operations are different aspects of the main activity of thinking - mediation, i.e. identifying increasingly significant objective connections and relationships between objects, phenomena and facts.

Comparison is a comparison of objects and phenomena in order to find similarities and differences between them. When we compare objects or phenomena, we can always find that they are similar in some ways and different in others.

Comparison of things, phenomena, their properties, comparison reveals identity and difference. Comparison reveals the identity of some things and the difference of others, which leads to their classification. The classification is based on a certain characteristic, which, as it turns out, is inherent in each object of a certain group. Thus, in a library, books can be classified by author, content, genre, binding, format, etc. The characteristic on the basis of which classification is made is called the basis of classification.

Analysis and synthesis are the most important operations of thinking that are inseparable. As a whole, they provide complete and comprehensive knowledge of reality.

Analysis is the mental dissection of an object or phenomenon with the aim of composing its parts or mentally highlighting its individual properties, characteristics, qualities. When we perceive an object, we can distinguish one part after another in it and thus determine what parts it consists of. For example, in a plant we distinguish stem, root, flowers, leaves, etc. Analysis in this case is the mental division of the whole into its component parts.

Synthesis is the mental connection of individual parts of objects or the mental combination of their individual properties. If analysis provides knowledge about individual elements, then synthesis, based on the results of analysis that combines these elements, provides knowledge about the object as a whole. Thus, when reading, individual letters, words, and sentences are highlighted in the text, but at the same time they are constantly connected with each other: Letters are combined into words, words into sentences, sentences into separate parts of the text.

Abstraction. Often, when studying a phenomenon, it is necessary to highlight one feature, one characteristic, one part of it for deeper knowledge, distracting (abstracting) for a while from all the others and not taking them into account. Abstraction is the mental exclusion of essential properties and characteristics of objects or phenomena while abstracting from non-essential properties and characteristics. With the help of abstraction we can get abstract concepts - courage, beauty, distance, heaviness, length, breadth, equality, value, etc.

Generalization and specification. Generalization is closely related to abstraction. A person cannot generalize without abstracting from the differences in what he generalizes. It is impossible to mentally unite all the trees without abstracting from the differences between them. Generalization involves combining objects and phenomena based on their common and essential characteristics. Generalization, like abstraction, is carried out using words. Each word refers not to one object or phenomenon, but to a collection of similar individual objects. For example, the concept that we express with the word “fruit” combines similar (essential) characteristics found in apples, pears, plums, etc.

In educational activities, generalization usually manifests itself in definitions, conclusions, rules..... It is often difficult for children to generalize, because they cannot always identify not only general, but also essential common features of objects, phenomena, facts.

Concreteness is the mental representation of something individual that corresponds to a particular concept or general goal. We are no longer distracted by various signs or characteristics of objects and phenomena, but, on the contrary, we try to present these objects or phenomena in a significant completeness of their properties. In principle, the particular is always a reference to an example, an illustration of the general. Specificity plays an important role in the explanations we give to others. This is especially important in the explanations that the teacher gives to the children.

Functions of thinking

The functions of thinking are presented in quite a variety of ways. Among them there are four main ones:

• understanding
• problem solving
• goal setting
• reflection

Understanding means revealing the essence of objects and phenomena. Understanding something new is achieved through the interaction of old information with newer information.

In cases where an individual is unable to achieve the goal he has set, when a problem arises in achieving a result, then the thinking process begins to work in the person’s brain. When the thinking process begins, a person begins to analyze, compare, etc. in order to solve the problem that has arisen. The individual cuts off unsuccessful solution options and leans towards more suitable ones.

Goal setting is understood as the process of producing new ideas, that is, the formation of future actions.

The function of reflection in the thinking process is expressed in the fact that the individual directs his actions to comprehend and analyze new knowledge.