Perhaps no personality theory was as widely known as psychodynamic theory (psychoanalysis), which went far beyond the boundaries of psychological science and influenced not only the development of psychology, but also sociology, medicine, culture, and art of the 20th century. Its founder was the Austrian scientist, psychoanalyst, psychiatrist and neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939).
Freud considered the main source of personality development to be innate biological factors (instincts), which generate libido energy (attraction, desire). It is the energy of a person’s life actions and finds release in sexual behavior. According to the scientist, a complex dynamic interaction occurs between instincts and drives on the one hand and between consciousness and moral and ethical standards on the other. This interaction is regulated by human behavior. Moreover, the unconscious plays the main role in this. This explanation led to the emergence of a whole direction in the theory of personality as psychodynamic (psychoanalysis).
Freud's structural model of personality
Freud believed that a mature personality consists of three principles: Id (It), Ego (I), Superego (Super-I).
The id (It) represents the primitive, innate and instinctive aspects of the personality, it functions in the unconscious and is associated with biological drives (sleep, food, defecation, etc.), filling human behavior with energy. The id contains passions, and as a biological principle it is irrational and immoral. The id obeys the pleasure principle and maintains a central position for the individual throughout life. According to Freud, the Id (It) is something dark, biological, not regulated by laws or rules. This is the initial structure of the psyche, which provides a discharge of psychic energy, but this happens in an impulsive and irrational form.
Ego (I) is a set of cognitive and executive functions of the psyche, conscious of a person, responsible for making decisions. The ego satisfies the desires of the id to the extent that real circumstances allow and is guided by the restrictions imposed by the external world. That is, no matter what your desires are, you must take reality into account and tolerate the postponement of your needs until acceptable conditions are created. The release of libidinal energy is inhibited or directed in another direction, acceptable for the given situation.
The superego (Super-I) is the bearer of moral standards, the critic and censor of all human desires. The superego is formed under the influence of society on the consciousness and subconscious of a person, his acceptance of values and norms of public morality. The main source of the formation of the superego are parents, loved ones, teachers and educators, those people with whom a person enters into long-term relationships throughout his life.
How do the Id, Ego and Superego interact?
Once born, a child has only the Id (It) and lives according to the principle of pleasure. When he faces prohibitions from his parents and people around him, he develops as a person and the Ego (I) and Super-ego (Super-Ego) appear. Consequently, under the pressure of the society in which he lives, he has an antagonistic relationship with it, but without this pressure personal growth is impossible.
According to Freud, the id requires the satisfaction of instincts, unconsciously directs psychic energy to regulate mental processes and human states. The unconscious drives that the Id sends are in constant conflict with the Superego, i.e. with moral standards. The constant contradictions between them are resolved by the Ego (I). The ego reconciles both sides so that the drives of the id are satisfied, but moral standards are not violated.
Freud's model of personality (Id, Ego, Superego) is divided into three zones: the unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious. Consciousness is the top, the preconscious and unconscious are the “underwater” part. The id is completely unconscious and inaccessible to consciousness. The superego is formed in the process of interaction with surrounding people and society. The content of the preconscious can be realized by a person, but it requires effort. The mechanism for the formation of the Super-ego in a child is identification with a close adult by gender, whose traits and qualities become the content of the Super-ego. The development of the psyche and superego in children goes through overcoming the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls.
Oedipus complex in boys and Electra complex in girls
According to Greek mythology, King Oedipus killed his father and married his mother, not knowing that she was his mother. Freud believed that the Oedipus complex conceals the essence of the sexual complex that constantly gravitates over every man. That is, the boy is attracted to his mother, and considers his father a rival - this causes admiration, fear, and hatred in the child. He wants to be like his father, but at the same time he wants his death, fearing castration for his attraction to his mother. Overcoming the Oedipus complex in boys occurs at the age of 5-6 years. At this time, their super-ego is formed.
The Electra complex in girls is associated with craving for the father and hostility towards the mother, and develops at the age of 5-6 years. The appearance of this complex is also associated with Greek mythology and is reflected in the behavior of Electra, who persuades her brother Orestes to kill her mother and her lover, thereby avenging the death of her father. Girls' first love is for their mother. But subsequently she sees a physical difference in the structure of the body, she does not have a penis, like her father and brother, and envy develops, which is the mental analogue of castration fear for boys.
Stages of personality development according to Freud
Freud believed that libidinal energy, associated with the life instinct, is the main factor in the formation of human character. In its development, a personality goes through several stages, they are associated with a shift in erogenous zones - those areas of the body whose stimulation causes pleasure, hence the name of age stages (stages).
Oral stage (up to 1 year) – during this period, desires are satisfied when the oral cavity is irritated. The child sucks milk, swallows, and when there is no food, sucks his own finger. All the baby’s desires cannot be satisfied, so the first restrictions appear and the Ego (I) begins to form. At the same time, such personality traits as greed, demandingness, insatiability develop, whatever is offered.
Anal stage (1-3 years) – the aerogenic zone moves into the intestinal mucosa. The baby is learning toilet skills. Parents teach neatness, new requirements and prohibitions arise. The Super-ego (Super-I) begins to form as the embodiment of social norms, internal censorship and conscience. During this period, accuracy, punctuality, stubbornness, secrecy, aggressiveness, etc. develop. According to Freud, children should be encouraged to have regular bowel movements and at the same time praised, then the child will develop positive self-esteem and, possibly, creative abilities.
Phallic stage (3-5 years) . The child begins to realize his sexual differences and is interested in the genitals. If before this children's sexuality was directed towards themselves, now children begin to experience sexual attachment to adults. Boys develop the Oedipus complex, girls develop the Electra complex. This is a period of strict prohibitions, when the Superego (Super-I) is intensively formed. New personality traits appear: introspection, prudence.
The latent stage (5-12 years) is a period of sexual calm, especially at 6-7 years. Preparations for growing up are underway. The ego and superego are actively developing. Attractions emanating from the Id (It) are successfully controlled. Children's sexual desires are repressed, and the child's interests are directed in another direction: communicating with friends, studying at school, etc.
The genital stage (from 12 years of age) begins with puberty. All erogenous zones are united, and a desire for normal sexual communication arises. Teenagers experience increased excitability and sexual activity. The id intensifies its action, and the individual has to fight its aggressive impulses using psychological defense mechanisms.
Psychological defense mechanisms
There is an unstable balance between the Id, Ego and Superego. The id sends out instincts that need to be satisfied. But some desires do not correspond to moral standards. The superego monitors compliance with these norms and inhibits desires. A compromise between them is achieved at the expense of the Ego. When an internal conflict is not resolved for a long time, a person becomes neurotic, because... He can maintain his mental state only thanks to psychological defense mechanisms. Each person has his own set of such mechanisms. Freud identified 5 of them.
Crowding out . When unacceptable desires (memories, thoughts, experiences, etc.) are repressed into the unconscious. Gradually a person forgets about such a desire, but the tension remains. Penetrating through the unconscious, it reminds itself of itself in the form of symbols in dreams, slips of the tongue, mistakes, etc.
Regression. Psychological defense, expressed in a return to childhood behavior patterns and habits: biting nails, spoiling things, being capricious, etc. In adults, it may include dissatisfaction, incontinence, desire for risky situations, opposition to authorities, etc.
Rationalization is a disguise. Avoiding true thoughts and feelings through more acceptable explanations of one’s own behavior. This suppresses guilt and shame, preserves self-esteem, and achieves a state of inner comfort. These “rational” explanations often look stupid and illogical
Projection is the unconscious or conscious transfer by a person of his states to external objects or the attribution of his own desires and feelings to other people. In other words, the blame for what happens is always placed on another person or circumstance.
Sublimation . When there is sexual or aggressive desire, the desire is directed in a different direction. Thanks to the sublimation of sexual desire, creative people can experience an extraordinary rise, masterpieces of painting or music are created, discoveries are made in the scientific field, etc.
Resolving intrapersonal conflicts
The human psyche tries to resolve intrapersonal conflicts in various ways:
- Dreams
- Sublimation
- Compensation
- Blocking the defense mechanisms of the psyche
In dreams of desires appear that have not been realized in reality. Recurring dreams indicate dissatisfaction with a certain unrealized need , which serves as an obstacle to human freedom and development. Sublimation is understood as the redirection of internal energy to goals that are encouraged and approved in society. Especially often, these goals correspond to creative activity, socially significant acts of an intellectual nature. The author also understood sublimation as a form of successful protection ; thanks to the influence of this energy, humanity created civilization. Unsatisfied desires often cause a state of anxiety; this is the body’s ability to neutralize the problem by directly addressing it. Energy that cannot find an outlet will become focused on overcoming difficulties, reducing risks and compensating for needs. Compensation means compensation for mental deficiencies. For example, a person with a lack of ability, but with a strong desire to achieve a goal, can develop the skills of performance and assertiveness.
In some situations, the voltage may be distorted or rejected by protection mechanisms . The defensive reaction to the same situation in the psyche can be different .
For example, the reaction to unrequited love feelings can be suppression (“I don’t remember these feelings”), rejection (“I didn’t have those feelings”), rationalization (“This relationship was a mistake”), isolation (“I don’t need these feelings ") and others. In his theory, S. Freud made the greatest attempt to understand and describe the human psyche , and made sensational discoveries in the psychoanalytic direction of psychology. The basic concepts introduced by the scientist are used in science and in the modern world and are the basis of many theories.
Opinion
First, as expected, about the good. Of course, S. Freud’s merits in the field of psychotherapy and psychology are great. He was the first to create a detailed theory of personality development, created an original method of treating neurotic disorders, developed a system of clinical observations based on self-analysis, substantiated and put into practice his method of studying mental processes that could not be studied at that time in other ways. Discovered what is beyond our consciousness. But!
Not all of Freud's research received scientific recognition, although his ideas were translated into practice and attracted the attention of many scientists. But what about the stages of personality development (oral, anal, phallic, etc.)? How to relate to the Oedipus complex and Electra? The Great Sigismund Shlomo Freud just wants: “Are you serious?” It turns out that without sexual attraction, even in children, there is no personal development? Oh? Maybe that’s why the child’s treatment did not produce results and the doctor only worked with adults? Or maybe the scientist’s bipolar disorder is to blame for everything?
Briefly about creating a method
The theory of psychoanalysis has made a real revolution in the field of psychology. This method was created and put into operation by the great scientist from Austria, doctor of psychiatry Sigmund Freud. Early in his career, Freud worked closely with many eminent scientists. Physiology professor Ernst Brücke, founder of the cathartic method of psychotherapy Joseph Breuer, founder of the theory of the psychogenic nature of hysteria Jean-Marais Charcot are just a small part of the historical figures with whom Sigmund Freud worked together. According to Freud himself, the peculiar basis of his method arose precisely at the moment of collaboration with the above-mentioned people.
While engaged in scientific activities, Freud came to the conclusion that some clinical manifestations of hysteria cannot be interpreted from a physiological point of view. How to explain the fact that one part of the human body completely loses sensitivity, while neighboring areas still feel the influence of various stimuli? How to explain the behavior of people in a state of hypnosis? According to the scientist himself, the above questions are a kind of proof of the fact that only a part of mental processes are a manifestation of central nervous system reactions.
Many people have heard that a person immersed in a hypnotic state can be given a psychological setting, which he will definitely fulfill. It is quite interesting that if you ask such a person about the motives for his actions, he can easily find arguments explaining his behavior. Based on this fact, we can say that human consciousness independently selects arguments for completed actions, even in cases where there is no particular need for explanations.
During the years of Sigmund Freud's life, the fact that human behavior can depend on external factors and motives secret to consciousness was a real shock. It should be noted that it was Freud who introduced such concepts as “unconsciousness” and “subconsciousness”. The observations of this outstanding scientist made it possible to create a theory about psychoanalysis. Briefly, Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis can be described as the analysis of the human psyche in terms of the forces that move it. The term “force” should be understood as the motives, consequences and influence of past life experiences on future destiny.
Freud was the first person who, using the method of psychoanalysis, was able to cure a patient with a half-paralyzed body
