What is existentialism? This is a trend in philosophy and culture, especially in fiction, highlighting the uniqueness of human existence, which can neither be expressed nor described in the conceptual language familiar to scientists. The ideas of existentialism date back to the 19th century. They first appeared in the philosophical teachings of Kierkegaard. This trend has become quite popular several times. This was mainly in the period after the First and Second World Wars. The manifesto of existentialism was the work of Martin Heidegger “Being and Time” and Karl Jaspers “Philosophy”. There are also original forms of existentialism, especially in France. These include the teachings of Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus. The word itself began to denote the situation of a person in the face of a world perceived as absurd.
Definition problems
What is existentialism? This is primarily a teaching about human existence. How does it differ from other schools of philosophy? The thinkers who promoted these theories sought to determine the place of existence - the existence of people - in the general system of Being. How exactly? They tried to figure out exactly how human existence relates to other forms of existence. As a result, representatives of existentialism came to the conclusion that, despite all their uniqueness, people themselves are not something independent. Their life and existence depends on many factors. And they themselves strive for the transcendental truth of Being.
What is an existential crisis
The phenomenon under consideration is a typical problem of an intelligent being, freed from the need to solve pressing issues related to survival. Such individuals have excess time, so they begin to think about the meaning of their own existence in life. More often than not, such reflections lead to bleak conclusions.
The irrationalistic direction of modern philosophical teaching, which elevates the existence of human subjects to the center of research and affirms human instinct as the basic method of comprehending reality, is called existentialism. He had a colossal influence on the development of culture of the last century. At the same time, existentialism never existed in pure variation as a separate direction of philosophy.
The human subject strives to believe that existence has meaning, but at the same time, looking at his own existence, as if from the outside, he suddenly realizes that the existence of people is not characterized by either an objective meaning or a given purpose.
A person’s existential crisis can be misdiagnosed, be a consequence of, or accompany the following phenomena:
– depressive disorder;
– prolonged isolation;
– acute sleep deficiency;
– dissatisfaction with one’s own existence;
– serious psychological trauma;
– feeling of loneliness and isolation in the world;
– acquired understanding of one’s own mortality, which often occurs due to the diagnosis of an incurable disease;
– conviction in the absence of meaning of existence and purpose of being;
– search for meaning in life;
– loss of understanding of the functioning of reality;
– the extreme degree of experience, bliss or pain, causing a desire to find meaning;
– awareness of the complexity of the structure of the Universe.
What is existentialism according to Martin Heidegger?
This controversial German thinker always resisted being defined anywhere. He constantly protested if he was called an existentialist. But if it weren’t for him, this philosophical movement might not have become what it is now. He gave it a basis and a basis. From the point of view of this German philosopher, being - especially when it comes to man - is not something permanent and motionless. It is always in the process of becoming. Heidegger introduced into philosophical circulation the difference between the concepts of “being” and “being”. These are two completely different moments in the existentialism of the German thinker. In Heidegger's philosophical existentialism, being is a mystery that man cannot comprehend through scientific methodology. Existence is the world of things around us. It is transitory and mortal, and most importantly, non-individual. In the bustle of their lives, people often forget about Existence, getting entangled in the web of existence. The consequence of this is a feeling of abandonment, loneliness, and fear. To overcome this, you need to rise above existence, try to realize the desire for transcendence, when a person achieves a special “standing in the truth of Being.” Then he finally becomes himself.
Practices for getting rid of feelings of meaninglessness
What could be worse than an internal emptiness growing every day? A person has nothing to cling to in order to somehow justify his still ongoing life.
- Allow yourself to completely immerse yourself in a state of helplessness , awareness of the meaninglessness of existence. You are the most unfortunate person. There will be no sympathy.
- Concentrate on the last phrase, let it be the background of all thoughts. Tested: when you realize this 100%, you will want to do something. And some meaning will appear.
- Try to find inspiration in some areas . Creativity, volunteer help, etc.
- Just wait . Some argue that everything passes, and this condition will pass.
- Concentrate on specific actions , skipping global goals.
- Choose your life credo and live by it , without fear or reproach. You can find it with the help of philosophy, religious movements, biographies of the lives of some people you respect (however, you should not copy them completely. These people became famous because they went their own, unique path).
- Seek help from a psychologist or psychotherapist. The advice is of course the most obvious, but sometimes you really need a disinterested third party.
Zapffe's philosophy
Philosopher Peter Zapffe came up with four paths that every person can choose for himself:
- isolation is the path of monasticism, hermitage, closure from everything alien and unpleasant;
- fixation - attachment to some goals, fantasies, tasks;
- distraction – moving attention to other areas;
- sublimation - find something to do in which you can invest the energy that goes into thinking and negative thoughts.
Sometimes these paths help, but sometimes they lead nowhere, into an even greater crisis. Be careful.
Philosophy of Camus
Albert Camus believed that every person sooner or later becomes convinced of the absurdity (the meaninglessness of life). Therefore, suicide is as meaningless as birth.
But after realizing this absurdity, a person can find his own meaning in life. The main thing is your impressions and a sense of satisfaction.
Being unto death
How is human existence assessed in this version of German existentialism? The answer may seem shocking. What makes it unique is the presence of death, finitude. The latter seems to capture our uniqueness, like a fly in amber. Our existence, Heidegger believed, is the path to death. Fear of it is horror of the loss of individuality, of the unknown, of the endless possibilities of existence. To describe human existence, Heidegger applied Edmund Husserl's teaching on intentionality (direction). To overcome death and the fear of it, a person strives for the truth of Existence. It's in his nature. But existence, the realities of life, often force him to change his intentions. Man redirects it to existence. So he loses his purpose.
What is human existence
For Heidegger, existentialism is an attempt to determine the place and purpose of the present existence of people. To describe human existence in different works, Heidegger uses three terms. The first is untrue being (Gegnet). The thinker denotes with this word the world of things that are alien and external to people. But it is precisely these things that “seduce” the person who wants to own them. The second is Das Man - impersonal being. This is how a philosopher means a person who is entangled in existence. And finally, the third is Dasein, “here-being.” This is what Heideger calls a person who has thrown off the shackles of existence. Such people know how and want to “question about being,” they feel the presence of mystery and want to be part of it.
Karl Jaspers
The problems of existentialism were also raised in the philosophical works of another German thinker. His books “The Psychology of Worldviews” and “The Meaning of History” are devoted to this issue. The process of philosophizing itself, from Jaspers’ point of view, cannot be limited to any method; it is a leap into unconditional being. It can be divided into three stages. The first is orientation in the world around us, when we understand that it cannot be interpreted exclusively objectively. The second is awareness of existence, that is, one’s existence as a person. And the third is the deciphering of transcendence (an attempt to escape from the world of things to the Absolute, to God). If Heidegger rejects metaphysics as interfering with the comprehension of Being, then Jaspers, on the contrary, posits it through search. But such a philosophy must be special. It does not explain, but assures us of the existence of Being. Therefore, Jaspers often calls such metaphysics a philosophical faith based on personal revelation. Her experience is often inexpressible using scientific terminology.
History and existentialism
Jaspers opened a new perspective on the development of the philosophical worldview. He put forward the idea that every concept is a consequence of the personal revelation of a given thinker. It is like a literary work. Therefore, philosophy cannot be measured by a “common yardstick.” It does not reflect social problems and cannot predict the future. The history of mankind itself is also not some kind of “tree of evolution”. This is a process that has no laws. In its unfolding, four “slices” can be observed. The first is associated with the discovery of fire, the invention of tools and the birth of language - that is, the emergence of man as a species. The second is the emergence of high-level civilizations and cultures (China, Egypt, Sumerians, and so on). The third is the so-called “Axial Time”, when a person comprehended the basics of spirituality (the emergence of Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Platonic philosophy, Christianity, Islam). And finally, there is scientific and technological progress, which began in the seventeenth century and continues to this day.
Existential guilt
This phenomenon is an inevitable companion of human nature. Death inevitably follows birth. The basis of human existence is murder. Because for the sake of survival, people exterminate the animal world. Even vegetarians are no exception, as they kill plants. And by stopping to eat, a person will kill his own person, that is, commit suicide.
Guilt is an integral part of human existence. The difference between adequate guilt and neurotic guilt lies in the motivating factor. Neurotic guilt is based on imaginary offenses allegedly directed against the social environment, parental orders, and generally accepted social norms. Normal guilt is an appeal to conscience; simply put, it encourages individuals to attach great importance to the ethical aspects of their own behavior.
Existential guilt is considered a variation of guilt. There are three forms of it. The first is a consequence of the inability to live according to one’s own potential. For example, people feel guilty when they think they have harmed themselves. The second is based on a distortion of the reality of the individual’s comrades. People may believe that they have harmed loved ones or friends. The third is the “guilt of division”, the object of this variation of guilt is nature as a whole.
Existential guilt is universal. It is nested in self-awareness and does not represent the result of non-compliance with parental “directives”, but it follows from the view that the human subject can perceive himself as an individual who can make choices and cannot. Hence, the concept in question is inextricably linked with personal responsibility. Guilt of an existential nature should not a priori be considered neurotic guilt, but it has the resource necessary for transformation into neurotic guilt. Moreover, if you correctly approach the variation of guilt under consideration, then it can benefit the human subject. It often contributes to the formation in individuals of the ability to reconcile with the world and sympathize with surrounding subjects, as well as the development of a creative resource.
Existential guilt towards one’s own person is a payment that an individual pays for the failure to realize one’s own destiny, for detachment from one’s own feelings, alienation of one’s own person from one’s thoughts and desires. Simply put, the concept described can be expressed as follows: “If an individual admits that he can change a certain trait or habit now, he will be forced to admit that he could have changed it a long time ago. Consequently, he is to blame for the wasted years, for his own losses and failures.” Therefore, the older an individual is, the greater his specific problem or general dissatisfaction with existence, the deeper his existential guilt towards himself will be.
Existentialism of Sartre and Camus
France also gave the world several thinkers who presented their own version of the “philosophy of existence.” Moreover, these were often writers, literary and public figures.
French existentialism, unlike German, is divided into atheistic and religious. Representatives of the “secular” trend drew a lot from the works of the early Heidegger, but presented it all in literary form. The so-called “existentials”, that is, the indispensable conditions of human existence, come to the fore. This is fear, death, loneliness and so on. Only they, and not ordinary philosophical categories, can describe the meaning of human existence. The existentialism of Sartre and Camus is already evident in the titles of their works - “Flies”, “Nausea”, “Plague”, “Boredom”. These French thinkers were consistently atheistic. From Camus' point of view, death is inevitable, and this must be understood. There is no transcendence. A man wakes up one day and realizes that he is, in essence, dead. This is his true existence. God is a contradiction in definition. In "Man Rebel" Camus writes that if there was a good Creator, then there would be no evil. Therefore, in order to become yourself, you should profess nonconformism (non-adjustment). Ultimately it is a permanent rebellion. A real person can only fall victim in the struggle, without hoping or trusting in anything.
Existential fear
Often, fears of an existential nature are considered a separate type of fear, not caused by a specific life event, but more related to the inner essence of the human subject. As a result, existential fears have a number of specifics and are inherent in all people, but they lurk in the depths of the subconscious and therefore are often not recognized by a person. Due to the depth and uncertainty of the content, fears of an existential nature are almost impossible to completely cure. These fears can only be minimized.
The described fears are divided into:
– fear of old age, death, in other words, fear of the unknown of the future;
– spatial fears can take various forms: fear of closed or open space, darkness, depth;
– misunderstanding of oneself and fear of one’s own personality, fear of one’s thoughts, insanity, manifestations of personality traits, possible actions, fear of losing control over one’s own person;
– fear of life, manifests itself in fear of the unknowability of life: fear of the inexplicable, mysterious, enigmatic, meaninglessness of existence.
Some authors identify another group of existential fears – fear of order and fear of its absence. This variation of fears can be expressed by an obsessive desire to establish forever a certain way of life, a way of life. At the same time, such subjects are afraid of novelty: a change of job, place of residence, starting relationships and disorder. The described type of people usually finds themselves in an area where a clear routine, routine, and punctuality are important. Or, on the contrary, it is revealed in the desire to destroy the predetermination of existence, stereotypical behavior, which leads to the emergence of fear due to the need to follow a clearly established order (more often such individuals find themselves in creativity). However, the fears described are inextricably linked with the fear of space, which is why they are often not classified as a separate subgroup.
The humanism of French existentialism
Let's take a closer look at Sartre's philosophy. God, in his opinion, cannot exist, because he would be a “thinking Being.” And this is contrary to the nature of things. Being is matter, even a “dump of mucus,” as the philosopher colorfully put it. A person strives to get away from this. Religiosity is a distorted desire to become a god, a superman. This is the desire to change existence. There is no and cannot be peace for a true person, there is only risk. The true existence of people is freedom. Moreover, freedom must be absolute, from everything, including from outdated moral standards. The main provisions of this philosophy are described in Sartre’s work “Existentialism is Humanism.” Existence is a chaos that cannot be ordered. We will have to go through fear, despair and a sense of hopelessness to understand that we are responsible for our choices. Anyone who passes this test will understand that there is no meaning in life. Existentialism is humanism because it helps a person to become fulfilled.
Such an individual himself gives meaning to his life, creates it himself. It is existentialism, the philosopher believes, that gives us the strength to resist the challenges that are destroying our civilization. In this work, written in 1946, Sartre defends his teaching against accusations of gloom and pessimism, explaining that it is a very honest and positive theory. True, Heidegger, to whose ideas the French philosopher referred, subsequently stated that he misunderstood his theses or interpreted them to suit his own subjectivism. He criticized Sartre in his Letter on Humanism.
There will always be difficulties in life, get used to it
However, difficulties should not be considered an unambiguous evil. Existential analysis suggests looking at them from a different point of view.
They are summarized in 5 main theses of the current metamodern world:
- You can give in to the difficulties of being a Victim. And you can be the Master of life. And there is no middle way here.
- You can experience life to its fullest only by seeing difficulties. You can huddle close to the shore and see nothing but your bay. Or you can go out to the waves and storms, but to the big sea and to new spaces. Expanding your comfort zone – that’s what psychologists call it.
- Difficulties force a person to open up from an unknown side , to find in him the strength and ability to resist life. It’s easier to do this by realizing the absurdity of life (an important existential concept).
- Failures and problems strengthen the spirit like ice water strengthens the body.
- You can take off only by resisting the wind and gravity . Be strong!
Concluding quote: “When difficulties and obstacles stand in your way, it is not enough to remain equanimous and calm. Bravely and joyfully rush forward, overcoming one obstacle after another. Act as the proverb says: “The more water, the higher the ship.”
The author is a Japanese hermit, former samurai Yamamoto Tsunetomo.
Neo-Thomism
We have already said that religious existentialism also appeared in France. He was close to the philosophy of neo-Thomism. What is existentialism in Catholicism? In the nineteenth century, Leo XIII proclaimed the teachings of Thomas Aquinas the official doctrine of the church. A philosophy department was opened in Leuven (Belgium), where these theories were rethought. They began to be called neo-Thomism. Thinkers of this trend made Thomas’s phrase “Know what you believe” their slogan and, on this basis, began to use the achievements of contemporary science. They declared that the Holy Scriptures are an allegory. There must be harmony between religion and science, and the historical conflict between them is just a misunderstanding. One of the directions of neo-Thomism made attempts to combine its search for the secret meaning of Scripture with existentialism. In philosophy, this movement was led by the Jesuit, anthropologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, who discovered Sinanthropus. He called for a rethinking of theology in the spirit of evolution. He explained the theory of the origin of man from the monkey by God inhaling the soul into the animal. He called the primitive system the “Adamic period,” and the Gospel a myth that calls us to the ideal. Expelled from France for “blasphemy,” he was deprived of the right to publish his works.
Religious existentialism
After the Second Vatican Council, the official church became more tolerant of this kind of philosopher. They began to try to explain the theory of the creation of the world by God and the teachings of Thomas through existentialism. The most famous among them were Etienne Gilson and Jacques Maritain. Being, in their opinion, is inexpressible. It can be roughly explained through the so-called transcendentals - unity, wisdom, etc. God is closer to the dimension of values, rather than things. By creating the world, he poured out the fullness of his being onto it. Gilson and Maritain consider five proofs of the existence of God by Thomas Aquinas through the prism of existentialism and hermeneutics, including the so-called “moral argument” of Immanuel Kant. They agree with this classic of German philosophy that reason should be limited in order to make room for faith. They call theology a combination of two types of knowledge - practical (morality) and theoretical (science). For them, a person is a complex substance consisting of soul and body. Of course, this is not new. But if the body is the basis of individuality, then the soul allows a person to become part of the universal. The meaning of a person’s existence is the contemplation of God. Its true being is following the natural law - to do good and avoid evil.
The tragic wisdom of religious existentialism
Gabriel Marcel stands apart from the cohort of neo-Thomists. He combined philosophical and religious existentialism in his teaching. It can be said that in his programmatic work “Tragic Wisdom and Beyond” he goes beyond the framework of neo-Thomism. Marcel also begins his characterization of man with existentials - fear, despair, hopelessness. But unlike Sartre and Camus, he believes that people must break through from freedom to God through transcendental consciousness. In this way, they will overcome egoistic isolation and break through to new horizons, where contact with eternity awaits them. Existentialism in the philosophy of Gabriel Marcel is, like other representatives of this movement, an attempt to find the main task of our time. The thinker is confident that we must understand that our world is a universe of “absolute insecurity.” We won't find anything in it. Therefore, we should gather all our strength and set out in search of a dimension where there will be no executioners, no inquisitors, no technocrats. They will simply fade and disappear like drops of dew at the beginning of a new, amazing day.
In this short essay we tried to characterize existentialism. Briefly speaking, this is a direction that calls on a person to realize his freedom and responsibility. After all, most people live “as usual,” in a rut, and do not even have time to understand that life is passing, when it suddenly ends. Fear and understanding of hopelessness and finitude can tear a person out of this web of illusions. But what will happen to him next? Will he be able to rely on a completely new understanding of God, or, in the case of atheistic existentialism, on himself? Probably everyone decides this in their own way. Despite the differences between existentialist philosophers, they have several common features. Probably the most important of them comes down to the following: when we consider the existence of a person, we understand that in this case existence lies before the essence, and not vice versa. That is, the most important thing about people is that they are individuals. But a responsible person is the one who embodied the true, authentic essence. Existentialist philosophers have always seen their calling as opposing positivism and rationalism. Sartre even called the latter “bad faith,” which tries to replace the understanding of the world as a phenomenon with convenient structuring.
Existential loneliness
In addition to realizing personal uniqueness in the Universe, humanity needs to realize that each subject always remains alone. Because no human subject is capable of feeling what another individual feels. And it doesn’t matter whether a person is surrounded by thousands of his own kind, merges in ecstasy with a partner, or is locked within four walls with himself alone.
Inevitable existential loneliness implies that the existence of human individuals is predetermined by his individually unique sensations and thoughts, inaccessible to other subjects.
Understanding existential loneliness can bring an individual both absolute freedom and slavery, and can become a generator of unprecedented strength or sources of great problems. This is due to individual choice. At the same time, it is impossible to avoid the state of loneliness. And only in the power of the individual himself to transform him into independence and force him to work for him. Responsibility for personal existence and independence also increase the experience of the described state, since in reality it is impossible to delegate responsibility for one’s own existence to anyone. This burden is individual.
Existential loneliness is, first of all, caused by the correlation of one’s own personality with nature, the perception of oneself as a holistic reality. If this need is not satisfied, then a feeling of loneliness arises, expressed by longing for the Fatherland, interaction with nature. The described type of loneliness will not disappear in communication with one’s own kind, but will only be temporarily muffled, since the reasons for its occurrence live outside the circle of human communications. This experience is not observed in everyone; more often it arises in individuals of certain professions, whose activities are connected, for example, with nature.
Individuals have a strong need to connect with the mystical and God. In the absence of its satisfaction, the characteristic experience of loneliness arises. This factor is fundamental in the formation of various sects and in the emergence of religious fanaticism.
For some subjects, the need to feel and realize their own uniqueness often remains unsatisfied. An individual experiencing self-isolation understands that the one-sided development of his own “I” neutralizes the formation of other aspects, as a result of which he feels uncomfortable. This variation of loneliness is expressed in the form of an orientation toward the “True Self.”
Cultural loneliness is expressed in the experience of detachment from cultural heritage, which was previously a significant part of existence. More often it manifests itself as a break with previous value guidelines, which is an important element in teenage life.
Social loneliness is much more common. It is associated with the interaction of the individual and the team. Social loneliness arises in exile, rejection by the collective, rejection by the group.
The individual feels his own rejection, that he was excluded, rejected, not appreciated. The feeling of rejection by society, of one’s own uselessness, more often arises in subjects who were unable to occupy a certain place in society. Such individuals are characterized by anxiety about their own social status and anxiety about social identity.
Subjects who need socially significant involvement are more likely to suffer from this type of loneliness. These are old people, teenagers, low-income people, eccentric people, women. It is precisely because of the fear of social loneliness that people actively join the team and participate in social activities.
Another variation of social loneliness arises when the human subject is perceived only as a role. Along with the type of loneliness described above, there is usually interpersonal loneliness. However, it is due to rejection or rejection by a specific person.
Individuals experiencing all of the above types of loneliness suffer from a personality disorder - anomia. An anomic individual is characterized by a rejection of his own person and environment, or a tendency to carry out actions under external control, attributing responsibility for the path of life to fate. An anomic individual often feels as if he exists without reference points in free (empty) space. People get tired of this kind of existence. As a result, existence loses value, and suicidal attempts are not uncommon. Such individuals are unable to fight on their own with the painful experiences of loneliness.
