Basic theories
Functional systems theory
In modern Russian science, systemic psychophysiology is primarily concerned with the development of the Theory of Functional Systems (TFS), proposed by P.K. Anokhin. The founder of the scientific school of systemic psychophysiology is considered to be one of P.K. Anokhin’s closest students, Vyacheslav Borisovich Shvyrkov. At the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences there is a laboratory of psychophysiology named after. V. B. Shvyrkova (head - Professor Yu. I. Aleksandrov).
From the point of view of systemic psychophysiology, any mental or behavioral act is implemented by a functional structure consisting of a number of elements distributed throughout the body and acting together to achieve a certain adaptive result. The adaptive result, in turn, is understood as a beneficial adaptive effect in the context of the relationship between the organism and the external environment. Within the framework of systemic psychophysiology, theoretical constructs and consequences of TPS are developed, and the neurophysiological foundations of the systemic organization of behavior are studied: the mechanisms of formation of functional systems in the brain, the dynamics of their relationships, memory mechanisms of neural groups, etc.
NeuroDarwinism
Among the major theoretical concepts of foreign science, the theory of group selection of neurons, or neuroDarwinism, can be attributed to the field of systems psychophysiology. This concept was first introduced by Gerald Edelman in 1978. According to this theory, a process of evolutionary renewal and competition between different groups of neurons continuously occurs in the brain. Understanding the physiological processes occurring in the brain as evolutionary selection, natural selection of certain neural ensembles [ what?
]. Interspecies struggle of populations in the context of neuronal Darwinism is an analogy of the struggle of groups of neurons to satisfy the individual metabolic needs of the cells forming these groups (systems). The common denominator of these processes is the evolutionary mechanisms of natural selection. Thus, the idea of the participation of evolutionary selection in the development of nervous tissue makes it possible to place highly specialized developments of neurophysiology in the structure of general biological concepts of a higher order, thereby enriching the general understanding of the processes occurring in the nervous system.
Text of the book “Fundamentals of Psychophysiology”
Lyudmila Dikaya, Igor Dikiy Fundamentals of psychophysiology: a textbook
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education
"SOUTH FEDERAL UNIVERSITY"
Academy of Psychology and Pedagogy
Published by decision of the Editorial and Publishing Council of the Southern Federal University (protocol No. 4 of May 5, 2016)
Recommended for publication by the Presidium of the Russian Psychological Society
Reviewers:
Associate Professor of the Department of Psychophysiology and Clinical Psychology of the Academy of Psychology and Pedagogy of the Southern Federal University, Candidate of Psychological Sciences, Associate Professor O. K. Trufanova;
Candidate of Psychological Sciences, acting. O. Director of the Rostov-on-Don College of Communications and Informatics N. G. Kalinin
Introduction
As a scientific discipline, psychophysiology arose at the intersection of psychology and physiology. The subject of its study is the physiological foundations of human mental activity and behavior. The sphere of interests of modern psychophysiology includes such problems as neural mechanisms of cognition of the surrounding reality, behavior and mental activity, as well as interhemispheric relationships, mechanisms of functional states, psychophysiology of individual differences, principles of coding and processing of information in the nervous system, psychophysiological correlates of decision making, consciousness and unconscious, brain mechanisms of creativity.
Nowadays, there is a mutual enrichment of the two human sciences (psychology and physiology) both with theoretical developments and experimental methods.
This textbook reflects systematic ideas about the biosociocultural prerequisites for the formation of human behavior and psyche, and the influence of the specifics of brain functioning on mental activity.
The textbook reflects the current state of psychophysiology and is intended for students of higher educational institutions studying in educational programs: 03.37.01 “Psychology” (bachelor’s degree), 37.05.01 “Clinical psychology” (specialty degree), 05.37.05 “Psychology of professional activity” (specialty degree) ), 44.05.01 “Pedagogy and psychology of deviant behavior” (specialty) and 37.04.01 “Psychology” (master’s degree) in the disciplines “Psychophysiology”, “Psychophysiology of children and adolescents”.
The textbook contains seven chapters, combined into three modules (“Introduction to the discipline”, “Psychophysiology of sensory-motor processes and the emotional sphere”, “Psychophysiological foundations of cognitive processes”), the content of which corresponds to the requirements of the work program of the discipline “Psychophysiology” for students in the field of study VPO 37.03.01 “Psychology” (bachelor’s degree).
The first chapter reveals the subject, tasks, history of the formation of psychophysiology and modern methods of its research.
The second chapter introduces the concept of a sensory system, outlines the general principles of the organization of sensory systems, and the psychophysiological patterns of perception.
The third chapter is devoted to the presentation of the psychophysiological mechanisms of movements. Motor activity is characterized and its functions are revealed. The structure of the motor system is described. A classification of movements is given. Particular attention is paid to the hierarchy of forms of motor activity according to N. A. Bernstein.
The fourth chapter presents the psychophysiological foundations of attention and emotions. The neurophysiological mechanisms of attention are revealed, and methods for its study and diagnosis are described. Classifications of emotions are given. The main theories of emotions are described. The neuroanatomical and functional organization of the central (brain) mechanisms of emotions is characterized.
The fifth chapter is devoted to a description of the psychophysiological foundations of memory. A classification of its types is given. The psychophysiological mechanisms of memory are revealed. Physiological theories of memory are outlined. The main neurotransmitters involved in memory processes are characterized.
The sixth chapter provides ideas about the psychophysiological foundations of thinking. Neural and electroencephalographic correlates of thinking are described.
The seventh chapter presents the main approaches to determining functional states and describes the types of functional states.
Test questions are presented for each chapter, and tasks for midterm control and a list of recommended literature for self-study are provided for each educational module, which allows you to optimize the learning process.
Module 1 Introduction to the discipline
Chapter 1 Subject, tasks, history of formation and methods of psychophysiology
1.1.
Subject, objectives, history of the formation of psychophysiology as a branch of psychological science Psychophysiology is a scientific discipline that arose at the intersection of psychology and physiology. Subject
Its study is the physiological mechanisms of mental processes and states.
The tasks of modern psychophysiology include
:
1) a causal explanation of mental phenomena by revealing the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms;
2) study of the physiological mechanisms of mental processes and conditions at the systemic, neural, synaptic, and molecular levels;
3) study of neurophysiological mechanisms of organization of higher mental functions of a person.
Modern psychophysiology has two birthdays - unofficial and official. The first is associated with the name of W. Wundt (1832–1920), who in 1879 divided all psychology into “psychology of peoples” and “physiological psychology.” The second birthday was marked by the founding congress (First International Congress) of psychophysiologists in Montreal in May 1982, at which a definition of the subject of psychophysiology was given, the International Organization of Psychophysiology (UR) was created and the publication “International Journal of Psychophysiology". At the I International Psychophysiological Congress in 1982, psychophysiology was officially defined as “the science of the physiological mechanisms of mental processes and states, individual differences” (Chernorizov A. M., 2007, p. 15).
This was preceded by many years of research by domestic and foreign scientists.
Psychophysiology
(psychological physiology) is a scientific discipline that arose at the intersection of psychology and physiology.
The term “psychophysiology” was proposed at the beginning of the 19th century. by the French philosopher N. Massias and was originally used to refer to a wide range of studies of the psyche that relied on precise objective physiological methods (determining sensory thresholds, reaction times, etc.).
Since psychophysiology is a natural science branch of psychological knowledge, it is necessary to determine its position in relation to other disciplines of the same orientation:
1) physiological psychology;
2) physiology of higher nervous activity and
3) neuropsychology.
The closest thing to psychophysiology is physiological psychology -
science that emerged at the end of the 19th century.
as a branch of experimental psychology. The term “physiological psychology” was introduced by W. Wundt to refer to psychological research that borrows methods and research results from human physiology. Currently, physiological psychology
is understood as
a branch of psychology that studies the physiological mechanisms of mental activity from the lowest to the highest levels of its organization
(Maryutina T. M., Kondakov I. M., 2004). Consequently, despite the practical coincidence of the tasks of psychophysiology and physiological psychology, at present, the differences between them are mainly of a terminological nature.
However, there was a period in the history of Russian psychophysiology when terminological differences were used to indicate the productivity of the functional-system approach to the study of the human psyche and behavior that was emerging in physiology. The identification of psychophysiology as an independent discipline in relation to physiological psychophysiology was carried out by A. R. Luria (1973), according to whose ideas physiological psychology studies the foundations of complex mental processes - motives and needs, sensations and perception, attention and memory, the most complex forms of speech and intellectual acts , i.e., individual mental processes and functions. Physiological psychology was formed as a result of the accumulation of empirical material about the functioning of various physiological systems of the body in various mental states.
Unlike physiological psychology, the subject of which was the study of individual physiological functions, the subject of psychophysiology, as noted by A. R. Luria, was the behavior of a person or animal. In this case, behavior turns out to be an independent variable, while the dependent variable is physiological processes. According to Luria, psychophysiology
- this is the physiology of integral forms of mental activity, it arose as a result of the need to explain mental phenomena using physiological processes, and therefore it compares complex forms of human behavioral characteristics with physiological processes of varying degrees of complexity (Maryutina T. M., Kondakov I. M., 2004).
The theoretical and experimental foundations of this direction are the theory of functional systems by P. K. Anokhin (1978), based on the understanding of mental and physiological processes as complex functional systems in which individual mechanisms are united by a common task into whole, jointly operating complexes aimed at achieving useful, adaptive result. The principle of self-regulation of physiological processes, formulated in Russian physiology by N.A. Bernstein (1990), who discovered a completely new approach to the study of the physiological mechanisms of individual mental processes, is also directly related to the idea of functional systems. As a result, the development of this direction in psychophysiology led to the emergence of a new field of research - systemic psychophysiology (Shvyrkov V. B., 1995).
Let us now consider the relationship between psychophysiology and neuropsychology. Neuropsychology is a branch of psychological science that has developed at the intersection of psychology, medicine (neurosurgery, neurology), physiology, and is aimed at studying the brain mechanisms of higher mental functions using the material of local brain lesions.
The theoretical basis of neuropsychology is the theory of systemic dynamic localization of mental processes developed by A. R. Luria (1973).
In recent decades, new methods have emerged (for example, positron emission tomography) that make it possible to study the cerebral localization of higher mental functions in healthy people. Therefore, it can be noted that modern neuropsychology is focused on studying the brain organization of mental activity not only in pathology, but also in normal conditions. Accordingly, the range of neuropsychology research has expanded; such areas as the neuropsychology of individual differences and developmental neuropsychology have appeared, which actually leads to the blurring of the boundaries between neuropsychology and psychophysiology.
Let us dwell on the relationship between the physiology of GNI and psychophysiology. Higher nervous activity (HNA)
- a concept introduced by I.P. Pavlov, for many years was identified with the concept of “mental activity.” Thus, the physiology of higher nervous activity was the physiology of mental activity, or psychophysiology.
The well-founded methodology and variety of experimental techniques of GNI physiology had a decisive influence on research in the field of the physiological foundations of human behavior, slowing down the development of those studies that did not fit into the “Procrustean bed” of GNI physiology. In 1950, the so-called “Pavlovian session” took place, dedicated to problems of psychology and physiology. At this session the discussion was about the need to revive Pavlovian teachings. The creator of the theory of functional systems, P.K. Anokhin, and some other prominent scientists were sharply criticized for deviating from this teaching.
Officially, the state of affairs changed in 1962, when the All-Union Conference on philosophical issues of the physiology of higher nervous activity and psychology was held, which stated the significant changes that had occurred in science in the post-war years. In characterizing these changes, we emphasize the following.
In connection with the intensive development of new techniques of physiological experiment, and above all with the advent of electroencephalography (EEG), the number of experimental studies of the brain mechanisms of the psyche and behavior of humans and animals began to increase. The EEG method provided an opportunity to look into the subtle physiological mechanisms underlying mental processes and behavior. The development of microelectrode technology and experiments with electrical stimulation of various brain structures using implanted electrodes have opened a new direction of research in the study of the brain. The growing importance of computer technology, information theory, cybernetics, etc. required a rethinking of the traditional principles of the physiology of GNI and the development of new theoretical and experimental paradigms.
Thanks to post-war innovations, foreign psychophysiology, which had previously been engaged in the study of physiological processes and human functions in various mental states, has also significantly transformed (T. M. Maryutina, I. M. Kondakov, 2004).
The intensive development of psychophysiology was also facilitated by the fact that the International Organization for Brain Research proclaimed the last decade of the 20th century. "A decade of the brain." As part of this international program, comprehensive research was carried out aimed at integrating all aspects of knowledge about the brain and the principles of its work.
Experiencing a period of intensive growth on this basis, psychophysiology has come close to solving problems that were previously inaccessible, for example, physiological mechanisms and patterns of information coding, chronometry of cognitive processes, etc.
In the guise of modern psychophysiology, B. I. Kochubey (1990) identified three new characteristics: activism, selectivism and informativism.
Activism –
rejection of the idea of a person as a being passively reacting to external influences, and the transition to a new “model” of a person - an active personality, guided by internally set goals, capable of voluntary self-regulation.
Selectivism
characterizes the increasing differentiation in the analysis of physiological processes and phenomena, which allows them to be put on a par with subtle psychological processes.
Informativizh
reflects the reorientation of physiology from the study of energy exchange with the environment to the exchange of information (Kochubey B.I., 1990).
At the present stage of its development, psychophysiology as the science of the physiological foundations of mental activity and behavior is a field of knowledge that combines physiological psychology, physiology of internal mental activity, “normal” neuropsychology and systemic psychophysiology.
Psychophysiology taken in full scope of its tasks includes three relatively independent parts: general, developmental and differential psychophysiology.
Each of them has its own subject of study, tasks and methodological techniques.
Subject of general psychophysiology –
physiological foundations (correlates, mechanisms, patterns) of mental activity and human behavior. General psychophysiology studies the physiological foundations of cognitive processes (cognitive psychophysiology), the emotional-need sphere of a person and functional states.
Subject of developmental psychophysiology –
ontogenetic changes in the physiological foundations of human mental activity.
Differential psychophysiology
studies the natural scientific foundations and prerequisites of individual differences in the human psyche and behavior (Maryutina T. M., Kondakov I. M., 2004).
Nowadays, there is a mutual enrichment of the two human sciences (psychology and physiology) both with theoretical developments and experimental methods. Today, scientists have at their disposal a significant range of methods for studying the brain.
The scope of interests of modern psychophysiology includes such problems as neural mechanisms of sensations, perception, memory and learning, motivation and emotions, thinking and speech, behavior and mental activity, as well as interhemispheric relationships, diagnostics and mechanisms of functional states, psychophysiology of individual differences, principles of coding and information processing in the nervous system, psychophysiological correlates of decision making, consciousness and the unconscious, brain mechanisms of creativity (Dikaya L. A, Dikiy I. S., 2015).
1.2.
Modern research methods in psychophysiology In psychophysiology, the main methods for recording physiological processes are electrophysiological methods. Since the discovery of “animal electricity” by L. Galvani (late 18th century), it has become known that the electrical component occupies a special place in the physiological activity of cells, tissues and organs. In addition, the studies also, as before, use autonomic reactions (galvanic skin reflex, heart rate, blood pressure, etc.).
Electrical activity of the skin
(EAC) is associated with sweating activity. From the central nervous system, the sweat glands receive influences from the cerebral cortex and from the deep structures of the brain - the hypothalamus and reticular formation. A person has 2–3 million sweat glands on the body, with the largest number on the palms and soles. Their main function is to maintain a constant body temperature. However, some sweat glands are also active during strong emotional experiences, stress and various forms of vigorous activity. These sweat glands are concentrated on the palms and soles and, to a lesser extent, on the forehead and under the arms. EAC is used as an indicator of such “atypical” sweating. It is usually recorded from the fingertips or palm using bipolar, non-polarizing electrodes.
There are two ways to study the electrical activity of the skin: the Feret method,
in which an external current source is used, and
the Tarkhanov method,
where an external current source is not used (Table 1, Fig. 1).
Table 1
Methods for studying electrical activity of the skin
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1. Fundamental differences between active (Fere) and passive (Tarkhanov) methods for studying the electrical activity of the skin
Previously, these EAC indicators were called the general term “galvanic skin response.” Now, in the case of applying an external current (Feret method), the indicator is considered to be conductivity
skin, and the indicator in Tarkhanov’s method is
the electrical potential
of the skin itself. Since the secretion of sweat from the sweat glands is cyclical, the EAC recordings are oscillatory in nature.
Electromyography
is a psychophysiological research method based on recording electrical impulses (potentials) arising in the muscle fibers of one or another part of the body under the influence of various exciting stimuli and/or at rest (Fig. 2).
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2. Scheme of the myography method
There are 2 main types of electromyography
(EMG):
1. Stimulation EMG –
a method that consists of stimulating nerve fibers with a special electrical impulse of a given intensity and recording the resulting muscle potentials using cutaneous electrodes located on the corresponding muscle. The stimulation EMG method allows you to evaluate the excitability of the nerve and the conduction of an electrical impulse along it in various areas of the motor or sensory nerves.
2. Needle EMG—
a minimally invasive research method in which a disposable thin needle electrode is inserted into a specific muscle in order to record and analyze its specific potentials in a state of complete relaxation and arbitrary tension. The needle EMG method allows you to assess the condition of the muscle and various parts of the peripheral nervous system.
Measuring local cerebral blood flow
(LMK). This method is based on measuring the rate of leaching of isotopes of xenon, krypton or hydrogen atoms from brain tissue. An increase in blood flow means an increase in metabolic processes somewhere in the brain. It is in this place that neurons are most active. Registration is carried out using a gamma camera. Isotopes are administered through the carotid artery (for one hemisphere) or through the respiratory tract (for both hemispheres). This method has high spatial resolution, i.e., it is suitable for identifying spatial background brain activity, but has low temporal resolution, i.e., it is of little use for studying the dynamics of brain activity.
Registration of impulse activity of nerve cells
.
One of the indicators of neuron activity is action potentials - electrical impulses with a duration of several ms
and an amplitude of up to several
mV
(Fig. 3).
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3. A – schematic diagram of recording the impulse activity of a neuron:
1
– neuron (enlarged) and the tip of the output electrode;
2 – micromanipulator (sectional view); 3
– microelectrode with a lead wire;
4
– indifferent electrode;
5 – amplifier; 6
– monitor and recording device.
B
– example of recording the impulse activity of a neuron (neuronogram)
Modern technical capabilities make it possible to record the impulse activity of neurons in animals in free behavior and compare this activity with various behavioral indicators. During brain operations, the impulse activity of neurons in humans is recorded. Registration is carried out using special metal or glass discharge microelectrodes (T. M. Maryutina, I. M. Kondakov, 2004).
Electroencephalography –
a non-invasive method for studying the functional state of the brain by recording its bioelectrical activity, depicted using an electroencephalogram (Fig. 4).
At each moment in time, the EEG reflects the total electrical activity of the cells of the cerebral cortex. EEG has high temporal resolution. Its indicators change with changes in the functional state, as well as during certain clinical cases, for example, during an epileptic seizure.
The EEG reflects fluctuations in time of the potential difference between two electrodes. The lead electrodes are placed according to the international “10–20” scheme (the need to compare electroencephalographic results obtained in people with different head sizes in different laboratories and in different countries led to the creation of a single standard system for applying electrodes).
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4. Carrying out an EEG of the brain
There are two ways of recording EEG - bipolar and monopolar.
With
bipolar lead
(in the clinic), the potential difference between two active electrodes is recorded.
In psychophysiological studies, the monopolar abduction method is generally accepted. With monopolar
abduction, the potential difference is recorded between different points on the surface of the head in relation to one indifferent point (mastoid process of the skull, etc.).
Normally, the following types of spontaneous oscillations are recorded:
Delta rhythm
– oscillations with a frequency of 0.5–3.5 Hz and an amplitude of 250–300 μV; observed during deep sleep and anesthesia; The zone where delta waves appear varies.
Theta rhythm
– oscillations with a frequency of 4–8 Hz, amplitude 100–150 μV; recorded during falling asleep, shallow sleep and shallow anesthesia. Oscillations are confined to the frontal zones, but are most pronounced in the hippocampus.
Alpha rhythm
– waves with a frequency of 8-13 Hz and an amplitude of 50 μV, are recorded with eyes closed in a state of wakefulness and complete rest. Registered in the occipital and parietal regions.
Beta rhythm
– waves with a frequency of 14–30 Hz, amplitude 20–25 μV; observed during brain activity and becomes more frequent as the intensity of mental work increases. Appears when the patient opens his eyes (called alpha block). Localized in the precentral and frontal cortex.
Gamma rhythm
: frequency 30-170 (up to 500) Hz, amplitude about 2 μV. They are observed in the precentral, frontal, temporal, parietal and specific areas of the cortex.
In Fig. Figure 5 shows the main EEG rhythms.
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5. Basic EEG rhythms
Magnetoencephalography –
registration of magnetic fields in a non-contact manner; it allows you to obtain a so-called magnetoencephalogram (MEG). In Fig. 6 shows a modern magnetoencephalograph.
Brain activity is accompanied by weak electrical currents that create magnetic fields. MEG is recorded using a superconducting quantum interference device - a magnetometer. It is assumed that if EEG is more associated with current sources (dipoles) radial relative to the surface of the cerebral cortex, which occurs on the surface of the gyri, then MEG is more associated with tangentially directed current sources, which are located in the cortical areas that form the sulci. If we assume that the area of the cerebral cortex in the sulci and on the surface of the gyri is approximately the same, then there is no doubt that the importance of MEG in studying brain activity is comparable to EEG. Since the electric and magnetic fields are mutually perpendicular, the simultaneous registration of these fields creates complementary information about the original source of generation of certain potentials. MEG can complement the information about brain activity obtained using electroencephalography.
Rice. 6.
Modern magnetoencephalograph
In Fig. Figure 7 shows one of the variants of the MEG study result.
Potentials
-
related events
(ERPs) are a broad class of electrophysiological phenomena that are isolated from background EEG.
The ERP characteristics show the connection between brain activity and events in the external environment (EP), in the externally observable behavior of the subject (motor potentials) and with the psychological characteristics of the subject’s activity (readiness potentials). The amplitude-time characteristics of a wave or component include: polarity
(positive or negative);
duration
;
latent period
the beginning of the deviation or its peak in relation to the moment of occurrence of the event;
amplitude
from the "zero line".
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MEG study result
Evoked potentials
(EP) are isolated from the background EEG after repeated presentation of the stimulus. In Fig. Figure 8 shows schematized endogenous components of the EP.
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8. Schematic endogenous components of EP
Oculography -
registration of eye movements. The amplitude of eye movements is determined in angular degrees.
Toward micromovements aimed at maintaining the location of the eyes in the orbit
, include
tremor
(small, frequent fluctuations),
drift
(slow, smooth movement of the eyes, interrupted by micro-jumps) and
micro-saccades
(fast movements).
To macro movements associated with changes in the location of the eyes in the orbit,
include
macro-saccades
(arbitrary quick and precise shifts of gaze from one point to another, for example, when looking at a picture, with quick precise movements of the hand)
and tracking eye movements
(smooth movements of the eyes when tracking an object moving in the field of view are involuntary).
Electrooculography
represents the most common method of recording eye movements, which eliminates contact with the eyeball. The dipole property of the eyeball, which consists in the fact that its cornea has a positive charge relative to the retina, underlies electrooculography. In Fig. Figure 9 shows the procedure for performing oculography.
Rice. 9.
Oculography procedure
Tomographic methods
.
Positron emission tomography
(PET) is based on identifying the distribution in the brain of various isotopes of chemical substances (C-11, 0-15, N-13, F-18) involved in metabolism. The labeled substance is injected into a vein or into the lungs, and it travels with the blood to the brain. There it emits a positron, which interacts with a free electron. In this case, gamma radiation (a pair of protons) is released, which is detected by the device. A horizontal slice of the brain allows one to create many traces, and a three-dimensional image of the brain with local active areas can be constructed by synthesizing these slices. In Fig. Figure 10 shows a diagram of PET.
Rice. 10.
PET flow chart
Currently, the method of magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) (Fig. 11).
MRI of the brain is a method of obtaining images without the use of X-rays or radiation. The patient is placed in a strong magnetic field, which causes all the hydrogen atoms in the body to align parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. At this moment, the device sends an electromagnetic signal perpendicular to the main magnetic field. Hydrogen atoms that have the same frequency as the signal are “excited” and generate their own signal, which is picked up by the tomograph.
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11. Magnetic resonance imaging
MRI is performed in various planes, which allows obtaining not only axial, but also frontal, sagittal and even oblique sections. MRI is completely harmless, since the study does not involve radiation.
Subject of psychophysiology
Psychophysiology considers a person as a multifaceted system. It contains several components:
- physical body;
- psyche;
- spiritual thoughts.
Alexander Romanovich Luria believed that at the level of all three components a person manifests himself in a special way. Hence, he identified the behavior of living organisms as the subject of science. In this case, it turns out to be an independent variable. The dependent variable, which is influenced by the independent one, becomes physiological processes.
If we approach the subject of psychophysiology on a large scale, then it can be defined as the behavior and psyche of living organisms based on physiological laws.
Psychophysiology and human vision[edit]
Main article
:
Human vision (Mig version) Main article
:
Color vision (Mig version) Main article
:
Effect of color on the nervous system
Fig. 1. Physiology of the autonomic nervous system.
The reaction of the human eye to a flash of light, color - narrowing, dilation of the pupil - the work of the autonomic nervous system
Human vision (visual perception) is the process of psychophysiological processing of optical information from objects in the surrounding world, carried out by the human visual system. Vision (Mig version) allows you to get an idea of the size, shape and color of objects, their relative position (perspective) and the distance between them, and the speed of movement of objects.
It is especially important to consider issues of color vision from a psychophysiological point of view. Color vision (Mig version), sensation of color, in general, we feel color purely subjectively as a result of the work of our consciousness, the visual parts of the brain
(See Visual cortex).
However, recognizing the role of connections between the radiation of object points (electromagnetic radiation) in the formation of color and its meaning in our consciousness, nevertheless, the leading factor in the creation of color values (sensations) is the objective nature of the color effect on a person (its influence on the nervous system, regardless of mental state). This is evidenced by data from psychophysiological and psychological studies. In Fig. 1 we see how light rays simultaneously enter the brain and the autonomic nervous system, which describes the effect of light and color on our organs through the autonomic nervous system.
Directions and areas
Psychophysiology into itself: theoretical psychophysiology and a set of areas of practical psychophysiology.
The main directions of theoretical psychophysiology include:
- psychophysiological mechanisms of encoding and decoding information;
- psychophysiology of perception;
- psychophysiology of attention;
- psychophysiology of memory and learning;
- psychophysiology of movements and control of autonomic reactions;
- psychophysiology of will;
- psychophysiology of thinking and speech;
- psychophysiology of emotions;
- psychophysiology of functional states, stress, sleep;
- differential psychophysiology;
- psychophysiology of anxiety, aggressiveness, depression;
- systemic psychophysiology (a section of psychophysiology, the field of study of which is the mental activity of integral functional systems of the body);
- psychophysiology of consciousness and its altered states;
- age-related psychophysiology.
Areas of psychophysiological research are:
attention, memory and learning, movements, functional states, aggressiveness, stress, sleep, emotions; psychophysiology of speech and thinking, psychophysiology of will, psychophysiology of consciousness, psychophysiology of musical perception; psychophysiology of sexual differences, age-related psychophysiology, differential psychophysiology (studying the physiological basis of individual psychological differences).
Applied areas of psychophysiology include the following areas. Social psychophysiology. Clinical psychophysiology. Ergonomic psychophysiology (objective methods for diagnosing the state of a human operator). Sports psychophysiology (objective assessment of sports form, coordination of movements). Aviation psychophysiology (objective telemetric methods for assessing the pilot’s condition during the flight, preventing loss of consciousness). Space psychophysiology (objective telemetric methods for assessing the mental state and predicting the dynamics of cosmonaut adaptation). Pedagogical psychophysiology. Ecological psychophysiology. Psychophysiology of alcoholism and drug addiction.
Within the framework of psychophysiology, there are separate areas related to the development of particularly important problems:
- sensory psychophysiology - psychophysiology of the senses, sensations and perceptions;
- psychophysiology of movement organization;
- psychophysiology of activity;
- psychophysiology of voluntary actions;
- psychophysiology of attention, memory and learning;
- psychophysiology of speech and thinking;
- psychophysiology of motivation and emotions;
- psychophysiology of sleep, psychophysiology of stress;
- psychophysiology of functional states, etc.
How to strengthen mirror neurons and develop empathy?
Even if we don’t smile, the facial muscles react to someone else’s smile - this is a proven fact. During a study conducted by scientists, a person had to clench a pencil in his teeth and watch other people. It turned out that the facial muscles fixed in this way could not react, and as a result, the person recognized other people’s emotions worse.
It's all about mirror neurons. These special cells of the cerebral cortex help us “try on” other people's movements and emotions. The point of motor mirror neurons is to repeat the movements of others and learn yourself. Emotional mirror neurons help you feel what another person feels.
Empathy helps you understand other people. The ability to empathize is not inherited and does not depend on the level of intelligence. Empathy is a very human quality, conditioned by the norms of human society and moral values. It is impossible to force yourself to sympathize. Of course, it is not a lack of mirror neurons that can be cited. But you can develop the skill of empathy.
Take the empathy test
Train.
Empathy can be learned by reading books, communicating, watching films or plays. For example, watch psychological films for training and put yourself in the shoes of the main character. You can pause the film in moments of difficult choices or changing circumstances and think about what you would do in a similar situation. This will be a useful workout.
Look for a person.
This technique for heightening empathy has its origins in Buddhist practices: spend a day thinking about the person who has a hand in your daily life. Our lives are directly connected with the lives of other, unknown people: sellers, trolleybus drivers, repairmen. Connecting with strangers unlocks your empathic potential. You can not only meet different people, but also overcome barriers: racial, religious, national.
Learn to listen.
This means not just being present, but hearing your interlocutor, trying to understand the meaning of his judgments. It is also useful to “listen” with your eyes - pay attention to the microfacial expressions of your interlocutor. Facial microexpressions last only moments, but they help to recognize true emotions.
Put yourself in the shoes of your interlocutor.
This universal technique helps not only to understand the interlocutor, but to respond to his words with the right questions and comments. By understanding the experiences of the interlocutor, it is easier to grasp the essence and respond correctly - so that the person will want to tell even more.
Help your interlocutor feel free.
In tense moments, you can nod to your interlocutor or make an appropriate gesture to encourage him to talk further. But at the same time, eliminate any distractions: do not click the pen button, do not rustle the paper, turn off the phone ringer.
Listen to the general meaning, not individual words.
Perhaps the most difficult thing is to try to grasp the general meaning, and not be distracted by individual phrases or expressions. Concentration and the absence of distracting sounds will certainly help you see the whole picture.
Watch for nonverbal cues.
Eye movements, crunching of fingers, nervous chuckles, rapid breathing - all this is introduced into the general context of communication. Sometimes body movements can provide more information than spoken words. And all because they are focused on the unconscious and are perceived by us at a more “subtle” level.
Keep your distance.
According to S. Freud, people with empathic abilities easily pass other people's emotions through themselves. This is where you need to be careful. Sometimes too intense empathy pushes the listener to protect the interlocutor from strong experiences. Together with experiencing other people's pain, grief, and traumatic events, this can become a difficult test for the listener.
Characteristics, subject and tasks of psychophysiology
Psychophysiology is a field of interdisciplinary research located at the intersection of psychology and neurophysiology. Studies the psyche in unity with its neurophysiological substrate - examines the relationship between the brain and the psyche, the role of biological factors, including the properties of the nervous system, in the performance of mental activity.
To some extent, psychophysiology allows us to overcome the problem of psychophysical dualism (psychophysical problem), establishing correlations between certain psychological and physiological parameters, considering the mental as a product of brain activity.
The main task of psychophysiology is the study of the physiological mechanisms of mental processes carried out at the systemic, neural, synaptic and molecular levels, the causal explanation of mental phenomena by revealing the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms.
Psychophysiology also studies the physiological and biochemical changes that occur in the nervous system. She tries to establish their connection with various aspects of activity: memory functioning, emotion regulation, sleep and dreams. Research methods are very diverse - from implanting electrodes into the brain to using special instruments to record physiological manifestations.
These studies revealed the most important role of “primitive” brain structures present in animals and humans, serving as centers of emotional processes, manifestations of instincts, sleep, etc.
The achievements of psychophysiology are widely used in clinical practice, in the construction of cybernetic models of psychophysiological processes, as well as in such applied areas of psychophysiology as psychophysiology of work, psychophysiology of sports, etc.
Natural scientific method I.M. Sechenov
I.M. Sechenov developed a special natural scientific method. Its essence can be defined by the following two principles:
- all kinds of mental phenomena are a product of the activity of the central nervous system, which means they obey the laws according to which other natural phenomena develop;
- it is necessary to adhere to the principle of historicism in the study of the psyche, that is, to go from the lower forms of its activity to the highest, from simple to complex, from the study of the animal psyche to the study of its specificity in humans.
Sechenov, applying these principles, approached the creation of a materialistic theory of reflection.
Background[edit]
Central and autonomic nervous system.
Tonsils in sections of the brain.
Spiders.
Some people have difficulty distinguishing psychophysiological from physiological psychology, two very different points of view. Psychologists are interested in why we might be afraid of spiders, and physiologists may be interested in the input/output system of the amygdala. Those. amygdala
, amygdala (lat. corpus amygdaloideum) is a characteristic area of the brain, shaped like an amygdala, located inside the temporal lobe (Lobus temporalis) of the brain. There are two tonsils in the brain, one in each hemisphere. The psychophysiologist will try to connect the two approaches.
Psychophysiologists typically study psychological/physiological reference in intact human subjects. While early psychophysiologists almost always studied the influence of psychological states on physiological system responses, since 1970, psychophysiologists have also often begun to study the influence of physiological states and systems on psychological states and processes. It is this perspective of studying the mind-body interface that makes psychophysiologists the brightest.
Historically, most psychophysiologists tend to study the physiological responses and organ systems innervated by the autonomic nervous system
. More recently, psychophysiologists have been equally, or perhaps more, interested in the central nervous system, studying cortical brain potentials such as many types of event related potentials (ERPs), brain waves, and using modern technologies such as functional magnetic resonance imaging. -resonance imaging (MRI), MRI, PET, MEG, and other neuroimagery methods.
Continuing to consider psychophysiology and physiological psychology, a psychophysiologist can assess how exposure to a stressful situation produces results in the cardiovascular system, having effects such as changes in heart rate (HR), vasodilation / vasoconstriction, myocardium or stroke. A physiological psychologist can appreciate how one event in the cardiovascular system can affect another event in the cardiovascular or endocrine systems, or how activation of one neural structure of the brain produces an excitatory effect in another neural structure, which then causes an inhibitory effect in another system. Often, physiological psychologists study the effects they study in infrahuman (less or less than human) subjects using surgical techniques or invasive processes. Psychophysiology is closely related to the fields of neuroscience and social neuroscience, which are primarily concerned with the relationships between psychological events and brain responses. Psychophysiology is also related to the medical discipline known as psychosomatics.
While psychophysiology was a discipline that diverged from psychological and medical science until around 1960 and 1970, more recently, psychophysiology has come to position itself at the intersection of psychological and medical sciences, and its popularity and importance have expanded commensurate with the realization of the interconnectedness of mind and body. .
Interdisciplinarity of psychophysiology, probabilistic methodology
Psychophysiology is a field of knowledge that is interdisciplinary. It examines the organization of relations between probabilistic mental, physical and spiritual phenomena and human essences. Psychophysiology is a discipline that, for effective cognition, uses a set of principles, prerequisites, means and methods of cognition that allow scientists to study a specific object, which is a person. Thus, a probabilistic methodology is applied. It is necessary to say a few words about her.
Psychophysiology is a science that studies humans using probabilistic methodology. The latter was started back in 1867 by the English physicist James Clerk Maxwell. Probabilistic methodology claims to be universal in science. Maxwell is the first scientist to apply its methods to characterize probabilistic physical reality. This researcher is considered the creator of statistical physics. Probabilistic methodology has one important advantage over deterministic (traditional) methodology. It provides much more complete knowledge about the object being studied.
Psychophysiological means of cognition[edit]
Teaching machine, a mechanical invention for automating programmed teaching tasks. The machine was developed by B.F. Skinner, a professor of psychology at Harvard University since 1958.
Psychophysiological measures are often used to study emotions and attention to responses to stimuli during physical activity, and most often to better understand cognitive processes or cognition processes, the totality of all mental abilities and processes associated with knowledge, attention, memory, and also working memory, judgments and evaluations. Also, psychophysiological measures are associated with reasoning and “calculations”, problem solving and decision making, understanding and creating language, etc.
Physiological sensors are used to detect emotions in schools and in intelligent teaching systems.
Age norm and rate of development
It is very important for both the teacher and the doctor to understand the level of development of the child with whom they work. Age-related physiology and psychophysiology determine what is considered the norm and what is a deviation from it. Any significant developmental deviation means the need to apply non-standard methods of treatment and education to a person. Therefore, one of the most important tasks of developmental psychology is to establish the parameters that determine the age norm.
It should be noted that the pace of development does not always correlate with its final level. Slowing down this process often leads to the achievement of outstanding abilities by a person (albeit later than his peers). On the contrary, often accelerated development ends too early. As a result, a person who initially showed great promise does not achieve high results in adulthood.
Strong deviations in the rates of development and growth are relatively rare. However, small variations that result in moderate leads or lags are common. How should we treat them? Are these manifestations of deviations in development or its variability? Age-related physiology provides answers to these and other questions. It develops criteria to judge the extent of deviations from the norm and the need to take measures to eliminate them or mitigate their consequences.
Positron emission tomography of the brain.
ü Nuclear magnetic resonance introscopy (NMR). Human
placed in a cylindrical tube with a permanent magnetic
field 30,000 times greater than the earth's. Organ tissue protons
begin to oscillate with a frequency proportional to the voltage
magnetic field. Radio waves and energy are then directed onto the body
which protons absorb. After cessation of exposure
the nuclei begin to radiate the absorbed energy. This is a study
recorded as a magnetic resonance signal. This method
allows you to obtain information about the density of chemicals
equivalent nuclei, distribution of blood flow rates in
tissues, diffusion of molecules and metabolism.
Story
The founder of scientific psychophysiology is the great Russian scientist Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov. He made fundamental discoveries in the field of studying the central nervous system, which form the basis of all forms of brain activity. In 1863, Sechenov discovered the phenomenon (the inhibitory effect of the nerve centers of the brain on the motor activity of the body). This phenomenon was the basis for the doctrine of the relationship between the body and the environment and provided a physiological basis for mental activity as a nervous mechanism that determines a person’s ability to resist external influences. The discovery was crucial for the formation of Sechenov’s psychological and physiological views, the first presentation of which he gave in his work “Reflexes of the Brain” (1863). Sechenov’s work became “...at the same time a profound scientific work and a political sermon calling for a new materialistic culture,” received resonance in wide public circles and caused controversy on problems related to Sechenov’s ideas about the essence of mental activity. In 1866, Sechenov’s book was seized, but it was lifted a year later. In 1873, Sechenov put forward the first program in Russian science for building psychology as an independent science based on an objective method (“Who and how to develop psychology”), in contrast to the idea of psychology as a science about the phenomena of consciousness given to the subject in his internal observation (introspection) . Sechenov considered the genetic approach to be the most adequate in the study of mental activity, i.e., analysis of the development of the psyche during a person’s life. In his research, Sechenov defended the position that the principles of scientific knowledge established in natural science (the principle of determinism, the experimental method, etc.) are also applicable to mental phenomena, but taking into account their specificity in comparison with nervous processes.
The basis of modern psychology and psychophysiology were the fundamental works of I. M. Sechenov: “Reflexes of the Brain” (1863), “Physiology of the Nervous System” (1866) and “Elements of Thought” (1879)
The founder of Soviet psychophysiology is Evgeniy Nikolaevich Sokolov, a Soviet and Russian scientist, a specialist in the field of neuroscience (work in the field of neural mechanisms of cognitive processes).
Works of I. P. Pavlov and further research
In the works of I.P. Pavlov, a famous Russian physiologist, the reflex theory was further developed. This scientist was the first to use an objective method of studying the mental functions of the brain, which was the conditioned reflex. Taking it into service, Pavlov investigated the physiological mechanisms in a number of processes that form the basis of elementary mental reactions. The works of this scientist, as well as representatives of his school, opened a new horizon in the study of brain activity experimentally.
Later, electrophysiological studies, supplemented by the method of conditioned reflexes, helped establish the fact that many mental processes are based on a certain functional organization in the structures of the brain. For example, we can consider memory as the result of the process of circulation of excitations along circuits of neurons that are closed, with further fixation at the molecular level of certain changes.
Emotions depend on how active certain centers located in the subcortical structures of the brain are. Currently, many mental reactions are reproduced artificially. For this purpose, the parts of the brain responsible for them are specially irritated. On the other hand, the brain, as well as the body as a whole, is reflected in everything that deeply affects our psyche. Thus, depression or grief can cause psychosomatic (physical) illnesses. Hypnosis can help heal or cause physical disorders. Witchcraft or violation of “taboo” among primitive peoples can even kill a person.
Recent Entries
- 1. Features of psychology as a science, its tasks
- Types of student activities
- General concept of intelligence
- General characteristics of a person’s motivational sphere
- Diagnosis of selectivity of attention
- Conflicts as the struggle of animals for vital resources
- Subject and method of pedagogical conflictology
- Dr. Freud and his teachings
- Social ecology is a science and educational subject in the professional training of social work specialists
- Analysis of case studies of therapy
- Development of Russian psychology in the 19th century
- Basic principles and methods of managerial psychology 2
- Coping with difficult life situations
- Guidelines for conducting practical classes in sections 1−3 of the discipline “Psychology”
- in the course "Psychology" 2
The Meaning of Discipline
The discipline we are interested in complements psychology, neuroscience, psychiatry, pedagogy and linguistics. Psychophysiology is a necessary link through which the human psyche is considered as a whole, including many complex forms of behavior that remained studied before its emergence.
For example, if you know which stages of ontogenesis are most sensitive to certain pedagogical influences, then you can influence the development of very important physiological and psychophysiological functions, such as memory, thinking, attention, perception, motor activity, mental and physical performance, etc. If you have an idea of the age-related characteristics of a child’s body, you can best reveal his physical and mental abilities, develop scientifically sound valeological and hygienic requirements for health-improving and educational work, organize a daily routine, physical activity and nutrition that suits individual needs. -constitutional characteristics and age. In other words, pedagogical influences can be optimal and effective only when they take into account the age characteristics of the child and adolescent and the capabilities of his body.
Direction use
| Organizers |
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Trainers Anna Andreevna Lapina (Moscow), Denis Grigorievich Grigoriev (Moscow), Natalya Vladimirovna Ignatova (Moscow), Pavel Evdokimenko (Moscow), Sergey Kurakin (Moscow), Sophie Geiza (Moscow), Sheila Khasaevna Alieva (Moscow), Anton Alekseevich Savin (Moscow), Anton Britva (Moscow), Viktor Stepanovich Shilin (Moscow), Vseslav Solo (Moscow), Evgeny Samsonenkov (Moscow), Larisa Tomilova (Moscow), Maria Samura (Moscow), Natalya Nikolaevna Bogatyreva (Moscow), Yana Gennadievna Peredernina (Moscow), Shamil Semenovich Tashaev (St. Petersburg), Peter Khodulov (Estonia), Oksana Chartoryskaya (Kiev), Olga Vladimirovna Tropina (Krasnoyarsk).More trainers 34
Consultants Anna Andreevna Lapina (Moscow), Denis Grigorievich Grigoriev (Moscow), Natalya Vladimirovna Ignatova (Moscow), Olga Aleksandrovna Gurskaya (Moscow), Pavel Evdokimenko (Moscow), Sergey Kurakin (Moscow), Sheila Khasaevna Alieva (Moscow), Victor Stepanovich Shilin (Moscow), Maria Samura (Moscow), Natalya Nikolaevna Bogatyreva (Moscow), Yana Gennadievna Peredernina (Moscow), Tatyana Ryazantseva (Stavropol), Tatyana Nikolaevna Gutko (Stavropol), Shamil Semenovich Tashaev (St. Petersburg), Olga Georgievna Dyakova (Sweden), Olga Vladimirovna Tropina (Krasnoyarsk), Yuri Anatolyevich Petukhov (Yaroslavl), Oksana Chartoryskaya (Kiev), Alexey Valerievich Elistratov (St. Petersburg), Marina Gennadievna Chukhrova (Novosibirsk).More consultants 13
Psychophysiological inference and physiological computer activity[edit]
Psychophysiological inference and physiological computer activity in astronautics. During a space flight, especially at the launch, at the beginning of the flight and upon returning to Earth, a person is in an affective state, he is subject to significant neuropsychic stress (emotions). Neuropsychic tension, in turn, causes a number of physiological changes in the spacecraft crew.
Physiological computing is a category of affective (affect - emotional, strong feelings that arise when it is impossible to find a way out of critical, dangerous situations, associated with pronounced organic and motor manifestations) calculations, which is activated in real time by software to adapt the psychophysiological activity of the user. The main goal of this work is to create a computer that responds to the user with emotion, cognition, and motivation. The approach is to provide implicit and symmetrical human-computer communication by providing access to software representing the user's psychological status.
There are several possible ways to represent the user's psychological state (discussed in the affective computing page). The advantages of using psychophysiological measures are that their changes are continuous, the measures are hidden and implicit, and the only available source of data is when the user interacts with the computer without an explicit communication device or input. These systems are based on the assumption that a psychophysiological measure is an accurate one-to-one representation of a corresponding psychological dimension, for example, mental effort, task involvement, and frustration.
Physiological computing systems all contain an element that can be called an adaptive controller that can be used to present to the player. This adaptive controller represents the core software adaptation decision-making process. In their simplest form, adaptive controllers are expressed as logical statements. Adaptive regulators encompass not only decision rules but also psychophysiological inference, which is implied in the quantification of these trigger points used to activate the rule. Representing a player using an adaptive controller can become very complex and often only one-dimensional. The cycle used to describe this process is known as Biocybernetic Cycles. Biocybernetic cycles are described by a closed system that receives data from psychophysiological players, turns this data into a computerized response, which then forms a future psychophysiological reaction on the part of the player. The positive control loop tends to become unstable as the software loop player strives for higher standards of desired performance. A physiological computer game may wish to include both positive and negative loops in controller adaptability. ,
