Although the meaning of life is a traditional question of philosophy, scientists began to specifically study it only about half a century ago: then the philosophy of the meaning of life became a separate direction. Before this, philosophers tried to understand what happiness, moral life, goodness, justice and responsibility are, they were looking for a definition of the concepts of “man” and “being” and, as if in passing, answered the question about the meaning of life. Why does this question keep coming up again and again?
Humans are so far the only living beings capable of reflection and looking at themselves from the outside. Unlike cats and hamsters, we can at any moment be distracted from our activities and ask ourselves why, out of many things to do, we chose this particular one.
This ability can not only save us from doing unnecessary things, but also makes us think about global things: why do we do anything at all, why do we live? Reflection also helps us realize our own mortality: understanding the finitude of life makes the question of its meaning urgent. We feel this especially acutely in moments of crisis or, as existentialist philosophers would say, in “borderline situations”: for example, when we experience the death of loved ones, learn about an incurable disease, get into a disaster, or get divorced.
As is usually the case in philosophy, there is no single correct answer, and different philosophical schools offer their own options.
Learn Wisdom: Living Like Socrates
For the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates (at least according to his student Plato), the meaning of life is wisdom, knowledge and self-knowledge. Only they can make us truly happy, because they teach us not to rejoice in material things, but in how we manage them. What's the point of money if it's used for wars and making others miserable? What's the point of gold if it doesn't benefit us or those around us?
Socrates noted that even the best things in the hands of a stupid person will only make him more unhappy, because he will not know how to properly manage them.
He will lose money, destroy his health because he will not take care of himself, and will miss out on love due to nagging or high expectations. A stupid person is doomed to misfortune, no matter how much he has - Socrates believed so, and therefore he taught that only in acquiring wisdom is the highest goal of our life. After all, a smart person, even if he has nothing, will find ways to turn the situation to his advantage.
“Since we all strive for happiness and, as it turns out, we are happy when we use things, and we use them correctly, and knowledge gives us this correctness and well-being, apparently every person should strive with all his might to become as wise as possible "
— Socrates in Plato's dialogue, Euthydemus
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Enjoy: living the moment like the Cyrenaics
His students, known as the Cyrenaic school, disagreed with Socrates. They believed that knowledge is subjective - that is, everyone has their own truth, and therefore there is no need to learn wisdom, but it is better to declare various joys (including simple bodily pleasures like food and sex) as the meaning of life.
The Cyrenaics reasoned like this: since the future is unknown, and the same thing can bring both pleasure and suffering to different people (or one person at different times), you need to live in the present and try to make every moment of your life as happy as possible: enjoy delicious food and wine, good weather and meeting friends.
It is unknown what the future will turn out to be, but life is already happening now and consists of such individual moments.
This is the meaning of the Cyrenaiese - to enjoy life and decide for yourself what “pleasure” is for you: feasts and wine or intellectual conversations and philosophy. The Cyrenaics approved of everything.
“There is no need to regret the past or fear the future; but one must be content only with the present, and even then only with each individual moment of it.
A particular pleasure is in itself worthy of choice. But happiness does not arise through itself, but through individual pleasures.”
— quotes from the Cyrenaics according to Losev, “Cyrenaica”
A pragmatic approach to determining the meaning of life
Reflecting on the purpose for which we come into this world, William James and his fellow pragmatists come to the conclusion that meaning and purpose are equal. The world is irrational, and it is futile to look for objective truths in it. Therefore, pragmatists believe that the meaning of life is commensurate only with a person’s success in life. Everything that leads to success has value and meaning. The presence of meaning in life can only be assessed and identified by applying the criterion of usefulness and profitability. Therefore, this concept often appears in a subsequent assessment of the life of another person.
Spiritually Enjoy: Living the Epicurean Way
The Cyrenaic view is what is usually meant when people talk about hedonism: pleasure and permissiveness. But not all philosophers are ready to admit that the meaning of our life lies in simple pleasures. However, they are not always ready to give up pleasures. How to combine this?
The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus divided all pleasures into “temporary” and “permanent”. The first ones are those that come and go, and they are necessarily followed by suffering: for example, we were hungry, ate deliciously and enjoyed the food, but after a couple of hours we want to eat again, which means we suffer and are again in search of pleasure. And so on in a circle. Later, the English utilitarian philosopher John Stuart Mill would call these pleasures “lower” and emphasize that the Epicureans advised abstaining from them.
Instead, Epicurus proposed making the meaning of his life to receive “permanent” (or “higher”) pleasures - peace of mind, prudence and moderation.
If we achieve peace of mind, it does not go anywhere and supports us in difficult moments, helps us see the main thing in life. To achieve such a state of mind, Epicurus advised to engage in self-knowledge, learn everything new, not be afraid of the gods and death, and also focus on what is in our power.
“When we say that pleasure is the ultimate goal, we do not mean the pleasures of debauchery or sensuality, as those who do not know, do not share or poorly understand our teaching believe - no, we mean freedom from the suffering of the body and from the turmoil of the soul . For it is not endless drinking bouts and holidays, not the enjoyment of boys and women or the fish table and other joys of a luxurious feast that make our life sweet, but only sober reasoning, examining the reasons for our every preference and avoidance and expelling opinions that place great anxiety in the soul.”
— Epicurus, “Letter to Menoeceus”
Other views and opinions
Tibetan philosophy, like Buddhism, supports the point of view of the need to free man from earthly suffering.
In their opinion, this can be achieved by understanding the world and oneself. Epicureans, on the contrary, extol the joys of life and offer to receive them in unlimited quantities. Their teaching denies the existence of the soul after the death of the body, so one should enjoy every day. Delicious food, entertainment, and friendship are highly valued by Epicureans. But they do not recognize negative emotions, such as guilt or sadness.
Ancient Indian civilizations called on people to remain part of nature and obey the natural course of life: raise new generations, cultivate fields and engage in crafts. At the same time, the desire for neither wealth nor poverty was not welcomed. Children were to inherit the world as their fathers received it in their time.
Overcoming Suffering: Living Like the Stoics and Buddha
The teachings of Epicurus have many similarities with what the Stoics and Buddhists advise. Both of them seek the meaning of life in peace of mind - only it is achieved not through the search for constant pleasures, as the Epicureans think, but through freedom from suffering. So how can you stop suffering? There are several recipes here.
The Stoics believed that we are able to overcome suffering only by achieving a special state - apathy. And this is not complete indifference or even loss of strength, as is now commonly thought, but a specific state of mind that is achieved through correct judgment and self-control.
When we understand that everything in the world is divided into what we can control and what we cannot, and we begin to worry only about the former and not worry about the latter, then we will begin to live stoically. Moreover, the only thing we can completely control is our attitude to the situation. Only we ourselves have the right to decide whether to worry about bad weather, or instead dress warmer and focus on our mental balance. And stop suffering.
“If you are upset about something external, then it is not the thing itself that oppresses you, but your judgment about it. But eliminating the latter is in your power. If something in your own mood upsets you, then who is stopping you from correcting your way of thinking? In the same way, if you are upset about not doing something that seems right to you, then is it not better to do it than to be upset?
— Marcus Aurelius, “Alone with Myself”
The philosophy of Buddhism also places freedom from suffering above all else. To achieve such freedom, it is worth remembering that the source of suffering is our desires. We constantly want something and suffer when we don’t have it. Having received it, we suffer because we can easily lose it, and also because we begin to want more (or something else). Only by giving up all desires can we get rid of suffering and achieve a special state - nirvana.
However, the phrase “meaning of life” in our usual meaning is not very applicable to Buddhism. Buddhism is a broad branch of philosophy. It has so many different schools and currents and such complex terminology that some Western philosophers remind us: all that is accessible to Western understanding is the “adaptation” of Buddhism for our culture. Of course, this does not mean that you should abandon it and not explore it at all, but you should always remember the limitations of our understanding.
Current Research on Meaning in Life
In modern psychology, meaning itself is usually no longer questioned. Almost all psychologists agree that meaning exists as a concept for people. That it can be found in the world around us and that we too can create or discover our own unique sense of meaning.
In this sense, we have arrived at a “post-postmodern” understanding of meaning. We no longer see distinct, discrete theories of meaning. Instead, we are comfortable mixing and merging ideas from different theories. So the current understanding of the meaning looks something like this:
“We are not sure where exactly the meaning comes from, whether it is innate or even “real.” What we do know is that people thrive when there is meaning and suffer when there is not.”
positive psychology in particular, where researchers theorize and experiment with how to increase meaning. The sources that provide meaning, and how we can manipulate our own experience of meaning. Without going too deep into questions about where meaning comes from.
However, no field of psychology will be full of competing theories and many opposing ideas. Below are some of the most popular and influential ideas about the meaning of life in positive psychology.
Frankl's Search for Meaning Model
“Everything can be taken from a person except the last of human freedoms - to choose his attitude in any circumstances.” — Viktor Frankl
Although Viktor Frankl's work on meaning is certainly not the most recent, it laid the foundation for research that has been carried out in subsequent decades.
Frankl developed his approach to meaning and therapy for meaninglessness before World War II, but refined it during his time in Nazi concentration camps. His pioneering work in logotherapy and his experiences in the camps are called "Man's Search for Meaning" for good reason. The main idea of his theory is that people are driven by their desire for meaning.
Based on this idea, Frankl developed three main components of his philosophy:
- Every person has a healthy “core.”
- Every person has the internal resources to “use” their healthy inner core.
- Life offers everyone individual purpose and meaning, but it does not owe happiness or satisfaction to anyone.
In addition, Frankl proposed that the meaning of life can be discovered in three ways:
- By creating a job or performing some task.
- Fully experiencing something or loving someone.
- In relation to inevitable suffering.
Although suffering is an inevitable part of life, Frankl encourages us to revel in our ability to choose how we respond to suffering. Indeed, the experience of suffering can cause us to find meaning that we would not otherwise see, depending on how we respond to it.
Frankl's work, while innovative, did not delve as deeply into the inner workings of meaning as some researchers would have liked. Some researchers in the field of positive psychology and beyond have their own understanding of meaning.
The meaning of life as understanding, purpose and meaning
One such view of meaning comes from researchers George and Park. Their conceptualization of meaning in life views it as a three-part construct, defined as:
“The degree to which life is experienced as meaningful, guided and motivated by valued goals, and making sense in the world.”
This definition can be broken down into three components:
- Understanding, or the degree to which people perceive a sense of coherence and understanding about their own lives.
- Purpose or the extent to which people experience life as directed and motivated by valued life goals.
- Meaning, or the extent to which people consider their existence to be significant, important, and valuable to the world.
Understanding, purpose, and meaning should not be viewed as three separate concepts, but as three closely related constructs that together make up the meaning of life. They will naturally interact and influence each other. A very low degree of one component is likely to pull down the others, and vice versa.
These three components are also influenced by meaning frames or belief systems about how things are and how they should be. If a person finds that things no longer make sense according to their systems of thought, these frameworks can be changed, abolished, or replaced in the process of meaning maintenance or meaning creation.
This three-part theory of meaning in life is still new, but it is a promising step toward a more comprehensive understanding of what meaning “means” to people.
Sensemaking
Current research is also increasingly focusing on meaning-making, or the processes that people engage in to reduce stress and recover from stressful events. A person can “attribute” several meanings, including:
- Global meaning is a person’s general orienting system, consisting of his beliefs, goals and feelings. Essentially, global meaning is how a person views the world and what ideas they have about how things work.
- Situational meaning is meaning in the context of a specific environment or encounter, usually a stressful one.
- Evaluated meaning is a subcomponent of situational meaning. Evaluated meaning is the meaning that a person automatically attributes to a situation. This is an implicit type of meaning, but it can change quickly as a person tries to make sense of a stressful event.
There are as many unique ways of making meaning as there are people in the world, but there are a few useful categories to better understand the most common processes.
Four differences between meaning-making processes have been identified and studied:
Automatic vs. intentional
Meaning making can be automatic or intentional. A person may engage in meaning making unconsciously without even realizing it, or they may consciously engage in the process to create meaning for their situation.
Automatic cognition occurs when, for example, a person experiences a stressful event and has intrusive and unwanted thoughts about the event. Although this experience is not pleasant, it can actually help a person understand their stressful event and find meaning in their suffering.
Conscious processes can be engaged in a variety of ways, including coping actions. People who engage in these coping activities use positive reappraisal. Reassess their goals and seek solutions to their problems or activate spiritual beliefs and experiences to help them get through difficult experiences.
Assimilation versus accommodation
When a person is faced with a stressful event and its global meaning does not coincide with its evaluative meaning of the situation, something must change. This change can occur in their global sense (a change in the individual’s semantic framework or in the understanding of the world). In their evaluative sense of the situation (a change in how they interpret the stressful event), or both.
When a person changes situational meaning to more closely match his global meaning, he is using assimilation. When a person changes his global meaning to make room for this new situation that does not “fit” his current understanding, he resorts to accommodation.
It was generally believed that people used assimilation more because it did not require them to change their general beliefs. However, adjustment may be more common, especially in the face of huge life-changing events.
Search for understanding and search for meaning
This distinction is made between an attempt to make an event conform to a particular system of rules and standards and an attempt to find meaning, worth, or value in an event.
For example, a person who has experienced a tragic loss may seek understanding by reminding himself that terrible things often happen to good people. Alternatively, he could search for meaning by wondering what impact this loss will have on his life and how it will change his personality.
Cognitive vs Emotional
Cognitive processes are processes that focus on processing information about a stressful event and reappraising or reworking one's beliefs. On the other hand, emotional processing is more focused on experiencing and exploring the emotions associated with a stressful event. These emotions must be absorbed and processed before a person can move on with their lives.
Results
These meaning-making processes can lead to the discovery or enhancement of meaning in many different forms, including:
- The feeling of “making sense” or coming to an understanding of why a stressful event happened (even if the “why” is simply “shit happening”).
- Acceptance or agreement with the event.
- Reattribution and causal understanding or inference about the cause of an event.
- Perception of growth or positive changes in life.
- Altered identity/integration of stressful experiences into personality.
- Reassessing the meaning of the stressor or bringing the experience into line with the current global meaning.
- Global (or general) ideas about how things are in the world have changed.
- Changed global (or general) goals, such as giving up unattainable goals or creating alternative goals.
- A restored or altered sense of meaning in life.
However, researchers define, differentiate or analyze this concept, but in general they all agree that the more meaning we feel in our lives, the better.
Build an ideal society: living the Confucian way
Another interesting version of the meaning of life that we inherited from Eastern philosophy is the desire to build a perfect society in which harmony will be achieved between man and Heaven.
The ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius teaches that an ideal society can only be built if each person fulfills his duties well and follows his destiny.
He viewed each person as a cog in a large mechanism, for the smooth operation of which it was important that everyone diligently fulfill their duties. Only by working together, fulfilling their assigned roles and treating each other with respect can people live in a better society. That is why Confucius declared self-improvement and the best performance of the work that is given to you as the meaning of life. Every person, no matter who he is, is capable of learning and improving what he does, whether it be cleaning and cooking or running a country.
In addition, Confucius reminds that people should never forget about others. Confucianism places a lot of emphasis on relationships: how to be a good son and parent, how to love all people, and how to fulfill your duty to others.
“When a person improves what is given to him by nature and uses it for the benefit of others, he is not far from the True Path. Don't do things you don't like to do to other people."
— Confucius, The Doctrine of the Mean
Human activity as the meaning of life according to I. G. Fichte
Fichte's subjective idealist philosophy was very influential among the leading philosophers of his time.
According to Fichte, not only the form of knowledge, but also its entire content must be derived from the pure self of transcendental apperception. And this means that Kant’s transcendental subject thereby becomes the absolute source of all being? the absolute Self, from whose activity arises the entirety of reality, the entire objective world, called by Fichte “Nicht? I". Thus, the understood subject essentially takes the place of the divine substance of classical rationalism.
To understand Fichte's subjective idealism, it should be remembered that he proceeds from Kant's transcendentalism, that is, he discusses the problem of knowledge, not being. The main question of Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason is “How are synthetic judgments a priori possible?” — remains central in Fichte’s work. That is why he calls his philosophy “the doctrine of science” (“scientific teaching”). Science, Fichte argues, differs from non-scientific ideas in its systematic form. But systematicity is a necessary but not sufficient condition for scientific knowledge. The truth of the entire system depends on the truth of the underlying assumption. The latter, as Fichte said, must be immediately reliable (self-refuting). Evidence, according to the German philosopher, is the main criterion of truth. Such a self-evident statement should lie at the basis of human consciousness, being the source and bearer of all other knowledge.
Just as Descartes, in search of the most reliable principle (“I think, therefore I exist”) turned to our “I,” so did Fichte. The most authentic thing in our consciousness, he says, is self-awareness: “I am”, “I am I” [9, p.454]. The act of self-awareness is a unique phenomenon. According to Fichte, this is an action and at the same time a product of this action, i.e. meeting of opposites? Subject and object, for in this act the self generates itself, presupposes itself.
The act by which the self generates itself is, according to Fichte, an act of freedom. So, the statement “I am” is not just a statement of an existing fact, like, for example, the statement “the rose is red,” but a response to a call, to a demand? “Become aware” of your “I”, become aware of it as a special autonomous reality through the act of awareness... and thereby enter the world of free beings, and not just natural beings. This demand is addressed to the will, and therefore the judgment “I am I” expresses precisely that autonomy of the will on which Kant bases ethics. The philosophy of Kant and Fichte is the idealism of freedom, an ethically oriented idealism.
In Fichte’s absolute “I,” the theoretical and practical principles coincide, and nature turns out to be only a means for the realization of human freedom, losing the remainder of the autonomy that it had in Kant’s philosophy. For Fichte, activity, the activity of the absolute subject, becomes the only source of all being. We accept the existence of natural objects as something independent only because the activity as a result of which these objects come into being is hidden from our consciousness.
Fichte's task is to reveal subjectivity in all objectively existing things. Nature, according to Fichte, does not exist on its own, but for the sake of something else. In order to realize itself, the activity of the self requires some obstacle, through overcoming which it unfolds all its determinations and, finally, realizes itself completely, thereby achieving identity with itself. However, this identity cannot be achieved within a limited time: It is an ideal that humanity strives for but never fully achieves. The movement towards such an ideal constitutes the meaning of the historical process.
Doing your duty: living like Kant
If the ideas of duty are close to you, but somehow you don’t want to build an ideal world, then ask the 18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant what the meaning of life is. He will advise you to voluntarily follow the categorical imperative or, more simply put, the moral law, which sounds like this:
“Act in such a way that the maxim of your will can at the same time have the force of a principle of universal legislation.”
— Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason
Kant offers several more variations of the categorical imperative, but its essence is this: our duty is to live and treat other people in the same way as we would like others to live and treat ourselves.
Simply put, if you put others down, don’t complain when they put you down. And if you want to be loved, first of all love and respect others.
However, Kant does not encourage selfishness and teaches that in no case should you treat others as a means to achieve your own goals: for example, loving others only so that they love you. On the contrary, you need to value each person and see in him an individual or, as Kant would say, “the ultimate goal.” Only life in accordance with morality can be meaningful.
Existential theory of the meaning of life
In the 20th century, philosophical discussions about the purposes of human existence became central in many directions, including existentialism. Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, Karl Jaspers, Martin Heidegger reflect on the meaning of life and come to the conclusion that the main thing for a person is freedom. Everyone brings meaning into their lives, since the world around them is absurd and chaotic. Actions and, most importantly, choices, moral, life, are why people live in the world. Meaning can only be perceived subjectively; it does not exist objectively.
Making others happy and being happy yourself: living like utilitarians
However, not all philosophers agree that morality lies only in the fulfillment of moral duty. Utilitarianism teaches that an action can only be called moral when it brings the greatest possible happiness and benefit to everyone around it. This means that the meaning of life is to maximize this happiness and thus be useful to society.
But how to achieve this? You can, for example, mentally calculate how much happiness this or that action will bring, and then do what is most useful to society.
Sometimes even to his own detriment: when choosing between the happiness of one or ten, the utilitarian will prefer quantity. Therefore, a life filled with meaning will be one in which a person brings the greatest benefit to society and makes as many people happy as possible.
They like to criticize utilitarians for this: not everything in life can be so easily calculated and compared, and people are unlikely to agree to sacrifice themselves for the sake of others.
The 19th century English philosopher John Stuart Mill objects to this: “The happiness of others makes me happy,” which is why we perform good altruistic deeds. Most often, they are the ones who fill our lives with meaning: by making others happy and seeing smiles on their faces, we ourselves become a little happier.
The meaning of life in psychology
Psychology is a science that studies the psychological parameters of a person and their changes under external influence. Its main goal is to achieve an understanding of the inner world of the individual in order to suggest the right motivation to the person. Psychology raises the basic questions of existence, allowing you to figure out what is most attractive.
- Improvement and self-realization.
Having found a job you like, you need to develop your skills and, if necessary, change the areas of their application in order to self-realize in your profession. In this age, this is the main goal of most people. Without moving up the career ladder, they see no meaning in life. That is why a huge number of advanced training courses and various trainings have appeared all over the world. Visits to exclusive clubs, first class flights and dinners in chic restaurants are bonuses that careerists value.
- Continuation of life.
Unlike workaholics, people focused on creating a large and strong family work only to support it. Having children and caring for them takes up almost all of their time. The joy and meaning of their existence lies in communicating with relatives, celebrating memorable dates and successes of family members.
- Achieving harmony.
Some people love to travel and become so creative in finding means to travel that they manage not to return home for years.
They maintain pages on the Internet, earn extra money during the seasonal harvest, and find the cheapest air tickets to travel to a new country.
Some people prefer risky sports and spend months perfecting the motor of a boat or motorcycle.
Each one is implemented in its own way. The goal of psychologists is to help find a person’s true aspiration and thus give impetus to the development of his personality.
There is no point: living nihilistically
However, some philosophers generally doubt that there is any meaning in life. For example, the 19th century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche reminds us that there is no objective truth, everything depends only on ourselves, or more precisely, on the side from which we look at things. The world has no meaning, just as there is no one objective truth, and we need to stop searching.
The 20th century French philosopher Albert Camus agrees with him, who also says that life is absurd and has no meaning, no matter how desperately we try to find it. All our attempts are just different points of view, none of which can be final.
He compares man's eternal attempts to find an explanation for everything with Sisyphean work: we roll a stone up a mountain, hoping that this time we will be able to roll it to the top, the meaning will be found and everything will become clear - but the stone always rolls down, we are left with nothing and we start all over again.
Life is meaningless, but that doesn't mean you should give up and refuse to live. Rather, we should stop trying to find meaning and declare that the absence of meaning gives a person great freedom. You can do whatever you want and not worry that your actions are meaningless.
You can finally honestly say to yourself: “Life is absurd, but I will enjoy it.” Don't regret the past, don't worry about the future, just live.
“It all ends with the recognition of the profound futility of individual life. But it is precisely this recognition that gives them the ease with which they carry out their creativity, since accepting the absurdity of life allows them to completely immerse themselves in it.”
— Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus
Philosophers of Ancient Greece about the meaning of life
The ancient Greeks thought a lot about the beginnings of existence, the origins of all things. The problem of the meaning of life is perhaps the only one on which representatives of different schools of ancient philosophy agreed. They believed that the search for meaning is a difficult, daily work, a path that has no end. They assumed that every person on earth has his own, unique mission, the acquisition of which is the main task and meaning. Socrates assumed that finding meaning allows a person to achieve harmony between the body and spirit. This is the path to peace and success not only in earthly life, but also in the other world. Aristotle believed that the search for the purpose of life is an integral element of human self-awareness and with the growth of the soul, the purpose of existence, the awareness of a person’s purpose changes, and there is no single, universal answer to the eternal question of why we live in the world.
Search for your own meaning in life: live as modern philosophers teach
One article is not enough to describe all possible
to the question about the meaning of life. And life is also not enough to read all the thinkers and find out where they found meaning.
And therefore, some modern philosophers have acted more cunningly: they believe that each person must find for himself his own meaning of life.
You shouldn’t wait for someone wise to answer this most important question; it’s time to take life into your own hands and look for what inspires and fills gray days with meaning.
“It doesn’t seem to me that life in general has any purpose. It just happens. But each individual person has his own goal.”
— Bertrand Russell, “What is an Agnostic?”
And you need to find this very goal, and then live in such a way as to achieve it. However, philosophers warn: focusing on the future is just as dangerous as hoping that the answer to the question about the meaning of life can be found out by reading just a textbook.
“The habit of hoping for the future and thinking that it gives meaning to what is happening now is very dangerous. There will be no meaning in the whole if there is no meaning in its parts. There is no need to think that life is a melodrama in which the main character or heroine suffers and suffers, and then finds happiness. I live now and this is my day, then my son will have his day, and then his son will take his place.”
Description of the meaning of life in domestic and foreign literature
At the beginning of the 19th century, the works of George Byron (pictured right), Alexander Pushkin and Mikhail Lermontov raised the issue of premature “old age of the soul” to which the main characters of their famous novels were subject.
A little later, nihilists appeared who denied the heritage of their ancestors and their achievements. Ivan Turgenev perfectly described the nihilist youth in his book “Fathers and Sons,” showing how superficial boredom and lack of interest in life are.
A person is happy, developing throughout his life's journey. A child learns about the world, a young man craves immediate action, and only in maturity comes comprehension of the actions taken and the chances that were taken or missed.
Leo Tolstoy believed that “you have to struggle, get confused, struggle, make mistakes, start and give up, and start again, and give up again, and always struggle and lose. And calmness is spiritual meanness.”
This is exactly the way of life that the French writer Honore de Balzac led. According to contemporaries, he was furious in the manifestation of love and hatred and was distinguished by his enormous capacity for work. His goal was to become famous, and he achieved it brilliantly, putting his own thoughts about the meaning of life into the mouths of the heroes of his novels.
