What is it like?
A classification of types of speech can exist according to the form in which information is exchanged. That is, speech can be oral (using sounds) or written (using special symbols).
If we focus on the number of participants in communication, then it can be divided into monological, dialogical and polylogical. The style of speech depends on the sphere of communication in which it functions, and can be scientific, journalistic, official business, artistic or colloquial.
The classification of forms of speech according to compositional and structural characteristics, as well as according to content and semantics, classifies any type of speech either as a description, or as a narration, or as a reasoning. Let's take a closer look at each of these divisions.
Functions
The following psychological functions of speech are distinguished:
- Conceptual function. It consists in the formation of concepts and definitions.
A set of sounds is combined into a word that characterizes a phenomenon, object or process. Conceptual speech is one of the main differences between humans and animals. - Generalization function . If the conceptual one is responsible for the naming of objects, then the generalizing one is responsible for the ability of a word to express several meanings. For example, a bow is one set of sounds and symbols, but two symbols are a plant and a weapon.
- Communication function. It consists in the exchange of information between people, allows people to communicate, distribute data, and negotiate.
Language and speech. Oral and written speech
By oral speech (a form contrasted with its written variety) we mean spoken speech, that is, sounding speech. It refers to the primary forms of existence of any language.
Written speech is understood as that speech that is depicted on a physical medium - paper, canvas, parchment, etc. using graphic writing signs designed specifically for this purpose. Historically, it appeared later than oral.
The form in which the Russian language mainly exists is called literary speech. Its main feature is the conscious use of means of communication with a focus on compliance with specific norms and rules. They are given in reference books, dictionaries and teaching aids. Norms are taught in schools, cultural institutions and the media.
In real communication conditions, written and spoken speech constantly intersect, interact and penetrate one another. Some genres related to written speech are subsequently voiced - these are oratory (including speech lessons) or drama. A literary work very often contains similar examples in the form of monologues and dialogues of the characters.
What is good about oral speech?
The most important advantage of oral speech over written speech is the ability to instantly transmit information. The difference between these two forms also lies in the fact that oral dialogue most often allows the participants to see each other and adjust the content and form of what is said depending on the reaction of the interlocutor.
Designed to be perceived by the human ear, oral speech does not require exact literal reproduction. In case of such a need, it is necessary to use certain technical means. In this case, everything is pronounced “right”, without preliminary corrections.
When communicating in writing, the author of the speech does not have the opportunity to provide feedback to his addressee. Therefore, the latter’s reaction has little effect. The reader subsequently has the opportunity to return to individual postulates any number of times, and the writer has the time and means to correct and supplement what is written.
The advantage of written communication is a more accurate and fixed presentation of information, the ability to transfer it to future times. Written speech serves as the basis for scientific and any business activity.
The concept of speech in psychology
Speech is the process of a person’s practical use of language in order to communicate with other people. Unlike speech, language
is a means for people to communicate with each other. In the process of communication, people express thoughts and feelings using language, achieve mutual understanding in order to carry out joint activities. Language and speech, like thinking, arise and develop in the process and under the influence of work. They are the property of only humans: Animals have neither language nor speech.
Speech has its own content.
The sounds that make up the words of oral speech have a complex physical structure; they distinguish the frequency, amplitude and shape of vibrations of air sound waves.
Of special importance in speech sounds is their timbre, which is based on overtones that accompany and complement the main tone of the speech sound. The overtones (“harmonics”) included in the speech sound are always found in the number of vibrations of the sound wave in a multiple ratio to the fundamental tone. All vowels and consonants of speech have harmonics characteristic of them, which allows us to perceive them very differently.
Speech sounds (vowels and consonants) differ from each other in the form of sound and are called phonemes. In the formation of phonemic features of speech sounds, articulation plays an important role, i.e., a very differentiated change in the position of the tongue, lips, teeth, hard and soft palate when exhaled air passes through the oral cavity. The result is guttural (“g”), labial (“b”), nasal (“n”), hissing (“sh”) and other sounds.
Phonemes occupy one of the important places in oral speech and its understanding by other people. Being included in the sound composition of various words, they make it possible to very subtly differentiate their semantic meaning. It is enough to change at least one sound from the components of a word so that it immediately acquires a different meaning. This function is performed by both vowels (compare, for example, “par” and “pir”) and consonant phonemes (“par”, “ball”).
Speech has its own properties:
• meaningfulness
speech is determined by the number of thoughts, feelings and aspirations expressed in it, their significance and correspondence to reality;
• clarity
speech is achieved by syntactically correct construction of sentences, as well as the use of pauses in appropriate places or highlighting words using logical stress;
• expressiveness
speech is associated with its emotional richness (in its expressiveness it can
be bright, energetic or, conversely, lethargic, pale);
. inactivity
speech lies in its influence on the thoughts, feelings and will of other people, on their beliefs and behavior.
Speech performs certain functions:
. expressions
is that, on the one hand, thanks to speech, a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech, its emotionality significantly expands the possibilities of communication;
• impact
lies in a person’s ability to motivate people to action through speech;
• designations
consists in the ability of a person, through speech, to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality names that are unique to them;
• messages
consists of the exchange of thoughts between people through words and phrases.
There are certain types of speech:
• oral -
this is communication between people through uttering words, on the one hand, and hearing them by people, on the other;
• monologue -
this is the speech of one person expressing his thoughts over a relatively long period of time;
• dialogical
- this is a conversation in which at least two interlocutors participate;
• written -
it is speech through written signs;
• internal -
This is speech that does not perform the function of communication, but only serves the thinking process of a particular person.
To reveal the physiological foundations of speech means to indicate the brain centers that control it, to characterize the peripheral systems that support it, to show its second-signal origin, to describe the syntagmatic and paradigmatic mechanisms of its formation, as well as the mechanisms of its perception and organization of speech response.
I G Krysko
To peripheral speech support systems
relate:
• the energetic system of the respiratory organs, necessary for the production of sound;
• lungs and the main respiratory muscle - the diaphragm;
• generator system, i.e. sound vibrators (vocal cords of the larynx), the vibration of which produces sound waves;
• resonator system, i.e. nasopharynx, skull, larynx and chest.
Speech is based on the activity of the second signaling system. According to I.P. According to Pavlov, people have two signaling systems of stimuli: the first signaling system is the direct impact of the internal and external environment on various receptors (animals also have this system) and the second signaling system, consisting only of words. Moreover, only a small part of these words denotes sensory effects on humans. The work of the second signaling system consists primarily in the analysis and synthesis of generalized speech signals.
Special studies have established that a person’s ability to analyze and synthesize speech is associated with:
• with the left hemisphere of the brain;
• with the auditory-speech zone of the cerebral cortex - the posterior part of the temporal gyrus, the so-called Wernicke's center:
• with the so-called Broca's area, located in the lower parts of the third frontal gyrus.
In addition, speech is ensured by the functioning of certain physiological mechanisms. Syntagmatic mechanisms
reflect the dynamic organization of a speech utterance and its physiological characteristics during the functioning of the cerebral cortex.
Paradigmatic mechanisms
reflect the connection of the posterior parts of the left hemisphere with speech codes (phonemic, articulatory, semantic, etc.).
The transition to understanding the speech message is possible only after the speech signal has been converted. Analy-
It is based on detector coding, phonemic interpretation of the received information by the brain. This means that neurons are sensitive to different sound signals and act on the basis of building a specific model of word recognition.
In an adult who speaks language, perception and pronunciation are mediated by internal physiological codes that provide phonological, articulatory, visual and semantic analysis of words. Moreover, all of the above codes and the operations carried out on their basis have their own cerebral localization.
Speech, at the same time, is a complex system of conditioned reflexes. It is based on the second signal system, the conditioned stimuli of which are words in their audio (oral speech) or visual form. The sounds and forms of words, being initially neutral stimuli for an individual, become conditioned speech stimuli in the process of re-combining them with the primary signal stimulus, causing perceptions and sensations of objects and their properties.
As a result, they acquire semantic meaning and become signals of the immediate stimuli with which they were combined. The temporary neural connections formed in this case are further strengthened through constant verbal reinforcement, become strong and acquire a two-way character: the sight of an object immediately evokes a reaction of naming it, and, conversely, an audible or visible word immediately evokes the idea of the object designated by this word.
Its other features...
The material form reproduced in writing using letters of the alphabet, in oral speech, are sound waves emitted by the human speech apparatus. Thanks to this, it has all the richness of intonation possibilities. The means of forming intonation are intensity, tempo of conversation, sound timbre, etc. Much of it depends on the clarity of pronunciation, the placement of logical stresses, and the length of pauses.
Important characteristics of oral speech are spontaneity, multichannelity and irreversibility. The origin of a thought and its expression occur almost simultaneously. Depending on the speaker’s speech experience and other circumstances, oral speech may be characterized by smoothness or intermittency and fragmentation.
Properties
In psychology, there are 4 key properties of speech:
- Content .
The more facts that correspond to reality, the more specificity and depth in the information presented, the greater its content. If there is nothing useful in the data, then such speech is called empty, superficial. Among the people there is idle chatter. Sometimes an information message is diluted with parasitic words, unnecessary expressive phrases, lengthy statements and deviations from the topic - it contains “water”. In this case, the speech is of average content. This property is influenced by the vocabulary and competence of the speaker in the topic of the message. The more words a person uses, the more accurately he can express a thought. The most useful information on the issue can be provided by a professional who is theoretically savvy and has tested the knowledge in practice. - Conceptuality . If conceptuality as a function gives an idea of the subject, then conceptuality as a property is the ability to convey information to the interlocutor. Speak in a language he understands. The more knowledge a person has in a certain area, the higher the conceptuality of what is said. For example, programmers know specific terminology, but non-professional people do not. For the average person, programmer jargon will be less conceptual, since knowledge is lacking. Even if the programmer expresses his thoughts clearly, consistently and meaningfully, communication cannot be completely successful. What makes it difficult is the different meanings of words for different people. For the same programmer, a “teapot” is a user who has little understanding of computers, but for an ordinary person it is a device for heating water.
- Expressiveness. It is determined by richness, emotional coloring and a person’s ability to place emphasis in a sentence and highlight important words with intonation. Another parameter of expressiveness is refined diction, when words are pronounced clearly and understandably.
Expressiveness is especially evident in dialogue.For example, the information message “FC Spartak defeated St. Petersburg Zenit” conveys the essence of the event, but in oral speech a person’s attitude to the fact can be added. He can say the news with joy or sadness (if he was a fan of Zenit). You can make the story richer in several ways: increasing your vocabulary, using metaphors, references, and irony.
- Impact . The degree of influence of what was said on the listener. The task of speech is not only to send information, but also to manipulate the behavior of the interlocutor: persuasion, provocation, pressure. The more influence speech has on a person, the higher its impact. The ability is influenced by the ability to persuade, argue one’s position, present information in understandable language, and speak sincerely.
...and types
Focusing on the reaction of listeners, the speaker can highlight the most important points, use comments, clarifications and repetitions. These features most characterize unprepared oral speech. The classification of speech on this basis contrasts it with another - prepared, existing in the form of lectures or reports.
This form is characterized by a clear structure and thoughtfulness. In a spontaneously pronounced text, typical of unprepared oral speech, there are many pauses, repetitions of individual words and sounds that do not carry any meaning (such as “uh-uh”, “here”, “means”), the structures intended for pronunciation are sometimes disrupted. In such speech there are more speech errors, short, incomplete and not always correct sentences, and fewer participial and participial phrases.
The types of oral speech also differ in functional varieties. It can be scientific, journalistic, artistic, colloquial, and also used in the official business sphere.
About writing
Written speech is not intended for a specific interlocutor and depends entirely on the writer. As already noted, it arose at a historically later stage of human development and exists in the form of an artificially created sign system designed to record spoken sounds. That is, signs to designate emitted sounds serve as its material carriers.
Unlike oral speech, written speech not only serves for direct communication, but also allows one to assimilate and perceive knowledge accumulated throughout the development of all human society. Such speech is a means of communication in cases where direct dialogue is impossible, when the interlocutors are separated by time or space.
Block 2. What is language?
2.1. Definition.
Language is a system of signs of any physical nature, through which subjects transmit information to each other in order to gain access to personally significant resources.
Body language, sign language, dance language, touch language, image language, symbol language, smell language, signal language. The number of languages in nature is quite large. Bees, ants, termites, birds, mammals, fish, and reptiles have a tongue. Man has language in its various forms. However, the key language is the word, the sentence.
2.2. Elements of language.
The following elements of language are distinguished:
1. What is a phoneme?
Phonemes are individual sounds of speech that do not contain meaning and are necessary for recognizing and distinguishing the designated structures of language.
Phonemes are combined into morphemes.
2. What is a morpheme?
A morpheme is a minimal linguistic form (unit) that correlates a certain content with a certain material (sound, graphic) sequence, a minimal linguistic sign. (Kubryakova E. S.)
The morpheme is endowed with meaning. Performs the functions of word formation and form formation. They do not have a communicative function.
3. What is a word?
A word is a structural unit of language that defines an object/event, its properties, mutual connections, is characterized by meaning and represents a holistic formation.
4. What is a proposal?
A sentence is a unit of language, consisting of grammatically ordered sequential words, filled with meaning, and plays a communicative role.
Signs of written speech
The exchange of messages in writing began already in ancient times. Nowadays, the role of writing has been reduced with the development of modern technologies (for example, the telephone), but with the invention of the Internet, as well as fax messages, forms of such speech have again become in demand.
Its main property can be considered the ability to long-term storage of transmitted information. The main feature of use is a strictly regulated book language. The main units of written speech are sentences, the task of which is to express logical semantic connections of a fairly complex level.
That is why written speech always contains well-thought-out sentences and is characterized by a fixed word order. Such speech is not characterized by inversion, that is, the use of words in the reverse order. In some cases this is completely unacceptable. Written speech is oriented towards visual perception, and therefore is clearly structured - pages are numbered, the text is divided into paragraphs and chapters, different types of fonts are used, etc.
Scientific
This style is typical for encyclopedic articles, textbooks and any other texts containing scientific information. Its features include the use of scientific terminology, logic, structured statements, impersonality (feelings and emotions are not important, facts are important, so the author’s personality does not appear in the text).
A vase is an elegantly shaped vessel with painted or molded decorations, made of clay, porcelain, stone, glass, metal and other materials.
Monologue and dialogue. Examples and essence of concepts
Classification of speech according to the number of participants was undertaken in ancient times. The division into dialogues and monologues was used in such areas as logic, rhetoric, and philosophy. The term “polylogue” arose at the end of the 20th century and refers to a conversation involving more than two people.
A form such as dialogue is characterized by alternating statements from both interlocutors in direct connection with a specific situation. The statements themselves are called replicas. In terms of semantic load, dialogue is an exchange of opinions that depend on each other.
The entire dialogue and any of its parts can be perceived as a separate textual act. The structure of a dialogue includes parts called beginning, base and ending. The first of these uses generally accepted forms of speech etiquette, a greeting or an introductory remark in the form of a question or judgment.
What are mental processes and what are they like?
Definition 1
Mental processes are one of the basic concepts of modern psychology. This term is understood as a group of mental phenomena that have their own specific functions, and together they form an integral system called the human psyche.
The division of the psyche into conditional elements of psychological processes was formed at the beginning of the formation of psychology as a science, that is, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when analytical tendencies took place in all sciences.
Today, modern scientists believe that all mental phenomena are closely related, practically cannot exist separately, and together they represent a single system - the human psyche.
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Mental processes are divided into three main groups:
- educational
- emotional
- strong-willed
Cognitive mental processes include:
- imagination
- memory
- Feel
- perception
- thinking
- consciousness
- speech
- attention
Emotional mental processes consist of:
- emotions
- feelings
- affects
Strong-willed ones, in turn, are divided into:
- goal setting
- decision making
- struggle of motives
Further in the article we will talk in more detail about such a cognitive mental process as speech.
What is dialogue like?
The main part can be from very short to very long. Any dialogue tends to be continued. As an ending, cues of agreement, response, or standard speech etiquette (“goodbye” or “all the best”) are used.
In the sphere of colloquial speech, dialogue is considered everyday and is conducted using colloquial vocabulary. Here, a poor choice of words, repetitions, and deviations from literary norms are allowed. Such dialogue is characterized by emotions and expression, unevenness, variety of topics, and deviation from the main line of discussion.
Dialogue is also found in literary sources. Examples are communication between heroes, a novel in letters, or authentic correspondence of historical figures.
It may or may not be very informative. In the latter case, it consists mainly of speech forms and does not contain useful information. An informative dialogue is characterized by the need for communication in order to obtain new data.
Let's talk about monologues
What is a monologue? Examples of it are no less common. This term denotes the statement of someone in an expanded form, intended for oneself or others and having a certain organization in the sense of composition and completeness. In a work of art, a monologue can become an integral component or an independent unit - for example, in the form of a one-man show.
In public life, speeches by speakers, lecturers, and speeches by radio and television announcers are practiced in the form of a monologue. Monologues are most characteristic of book speech in oral form (speeches in courts, lectures, reports), but it may not have a specific listener as its addressee and may not imply a response.
According to the purpose of the statement, this form of speech is either informational, persuasive, or stimulating. Informational is a monologue conveying knowledge. Examples are the same lectures, reports, reports or speeches. Persuasive speech is focused on the emotions of those who will listen to it. These are congratulations, parting words, etc.
Incentive speech, as the name suggests, is designed to motivate listeners to take certain actions. Examples include calls, protests and speeches by politicians.
Polylogue - what kind of animal?
The classification of speech styles has recently (end of the last century) been supplemented with the concept of polylogue. Even among linguists it has not yet come into widespread use. This is a conversation between several people at once. Situationally, it is closer to dialogue, as it unites listeners and speakers. There is polylogue in the forms of discussions, conversations, games, meetings. There is an exchange of information contributed by everyone, and everyone is aware of what is being discussed.
The rules by which a polylogue is constructed are as follows: participants are instructed to speak convincingly and quite briefly; everyone who composes it is obliged to follow the plot of the discussion and be attentive; it is customary to ask questions and clarify unclear points, as well as make the necessary objections. The polylogue must be conducted in a correct and friendly manner.
Different types of texts
There are also different types of speech depending on the functions performed. The classification of speech according to this criterion divides it into texts that reflect actual reality and those that contain thoughts and reasoning about it. Depending on the meaning, any of them can be classified as narrative, descriptive or reasoning.
Descriptions depict a phenomenon with a list of characteristics inherent in it. It can be portrait, landscape, interior, everyday, scientific, etc. It is inherently static, and it is built on the main starting point contained in the object itself or its separate part. Thought develops by adding new features to what has been said.
The type called narrative is a story about events and actions that occur over time. Its composition includes a beginning with subsequent development, continuation, climax and ends with a denouement.
Reasoning is understood as confirmation and explanation of a certain thought or statement expressed in words. The composition usually consists of a thesis, its evidence and final conclusions.
...and styles
Modern linguistics has streamlined the very concept of “speech”. The classification of speech depending on the purpose of communication, as already mentioned at the beginning of the article, is reduced to five different speech styles (everyday or colloquial, scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic). Thus, the conversational style is used mainly in everyday life and in everyday communications. It is characterized by oral speech with a predominance of dialogues.
In the field of scientific and technical sphere, with the description of various theories and technologies, the scientific style prevails - strictly verified and not allowing free turns. Official business is used in the legislative sphere and in any type of formal communication. It is characterized by many fixed structures, a significant predominance of written speech, and a large number of monologues (reports, lectures, speeches, court speeches).
For the socio-political sphere, a journalistic style has always been and is being used, often existing in the form of bright, emotionally charged monologues of a stimulating nature.
The sphere of art is subject to artistic style. The variety of expressions, the wealth of forms and linguistic means reign here; strict official constructions are practically never found here.
The choice of genres and styles is dictated by the content of the speech and the type of its communicative orientation, in other words, by the purpose of communication. The techniques that will be used in a dialogue or monologue, as well as the compositional structure of each specific speech, depend on them.
Colloquial
It is used when we share our feelings with someone, express a thought in a normal conversation. It has its own characteristics - for example, incomplete sentences (“I’ll go” instead of “Yes, I’ll go to the cinema today”). Often, getting carried away by a conversation, interlocutors may lose the thread of the conversation or move away from the topic - this can also be considered one of the signs of a conversational style, as well as the use of colloquial expressions (“stunned”, “mess”, “go to hell”).
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