Object and subject of observation
The object of observation is individuals in various situations of social interaction or large and small groups, communities.
The subject of observation is the verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior of an individual, group or several groups in a certain social environment and situation:
- speech acts, their content, sequence, direction, frequency, duration, intensity, expressiveness, features of semantics, vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, synchronization;
- expressive movements, expression of face, eyes, body, sounds;
- movement, movements and stationary states of people, the distance between them, speed and direction of movement, contact;
- physical impact: touching, pushing, hitting, supporting, joint efforts, transferring, taking away, delaying;
- a combination of the listed characteristics.
Objective observation is aimed not at external actions in themselves, but at their psychological content. Here, the external side of activity and behavior is only the raw material of observation, which must receive its psychological interpretation and be comprehended within the framework of a certain theory.
Three meanings
Typically, observation is viewed from three different angles. Depending on the situation and scope of use, there are:
- Observation as a method.
- Like an activity.
- Like a technique.
Observation can be a scientific method, then it will include a system of principles of knowledge, provisions on essence and the specifics of psychological observation about the possibilities of human activity. This option is considered universal and is used to study a wide range of phenomena. The observation method is quite flexible, and if the need arises, the researcher can change the “field of coverage”, put forward and test additional hypotheses during the experiment. In addition, such activities require minimal hardware. The specificity also lies in the attitude towards the object being studied: the researcher does not interfere in his life, but at the same time maintains visual and auditory contact.
Observation as an activity is used in some practical areas. For example, an energy systems operator monitors instrument readings, a doctor examines patients, an investigator monitors a criminal, etc.
On the third hand, there is also an observation technique. It is a socially fixed subject system for collecting and processing data, which is presented in a language understandable to others and corresponds to previously identified tasks.
Classifications of types of observation
There are several classifications of types of observation method depending on:
- degrees of formalization - controlled and uncontrolled;
- the degree of participation of the observer in the situation under study - included and not included (with included observation, objectivity suffers);
- conditions of the organization - open and hidden (with open observation, people behave unnaturally);
- venues - field and laboratory;
- regularity of implementation - systematic and random;
- ascertaining and evaluative;
- continuous and selective (selective observation records the behavior of one person);
- observation and introspection.
Self-observation, in turn, can be direct (self-report) and indirect (analysis of diaries, letters, autobiographies). The advantage of self-observation is the ability to obtain information that is not available to other research methods.
Definition of the concept
In social, clinical and educational psychology, observation as a research method has been used since the end of the 19th century, and in the last century it began to be used in labor science. This is the most ancient method of understanding surrounding objects and phenomena. In everyday life, a person himself does not notice how he begins to observe someone or something.
Observation cannot be called a process in which the intervention of the experimenter changes the conditions of its implementation. But it will help in cases where it is necessary to obtain a holistic picture of ongoing events and reflect it in records and tables. Main features of the procedure:
- connection between observer and subject;
- partiality - emotional component;
- difficulty and sometimes impossibility of repeating.
If the observation is carried out in natural conditions, then the person will not influence it in any way. But when the subject knows that he is being examined, he changes his habits.
The first experimenters were V. Prier, V. Stern and A. Gvozdikov. They observed the development of the child in the family and recorded the information received in their diaries.
Requirements for surveillance and its effectiveness
In order for surveillance to be effective, it must meet a number of requirements:
- it must be selective, i.e. proceed from a clearly defined goal, highlight a certain aspect of the object being studied;
- it must be planned and systematic, i.e. be built on the basis of a specific plan and carried out over a certain period of time;
- it is important to record the observed phenomenon in as much detail as possible, i.e. completeness of observation is necessary;
- It is imperative to define observation situations, identify units and signs of observation, as well as methods for recording them.
To take into account all these requirements as much as possible, as a rule, an observation program up, which in a formalized form includes the following points: goals and objectives of observation, object of observation, subject, method and type of observation, observed situations, units of observation, observation tools.
The effectiveness of observation depends significantly on the significance of a given situation for the personality of the observer. Increasing the effectiveness of observation is possible if there is a rejection of premature assessments and generalizations, multiple observations, reinforcement by other methods, and the presence of special equipment (for example, a reverse vision mirror).
Typical Observer Errors:
- The effect of leniency - the observer does not dare to give a negative rating;
- The central tendency effect is the tendency to give average grades;
- Logical errors (one who is articulate is judged to be smart, etc.);
- Haloeffect - by highlighting a bright feature, the observer changes the assessments of all other qualities.
Code of Ethics
For the proper use and characterization of the observation method, one must follow the basic rules of psychology as established by the Code of Ethics of the American Psychological Association. The researcher must adhere to precautionary measures.
If the trial is carried out in a public place, it is not necessary to obtain the consent of the participants. And for individual research, you need to obtain the subject's permission . Psychologists must behave carefully and try not to harm others. If this cannot be avoided, it is recommended to reduce the damage.
Intrusion into the privacy of participants should also be kept to a minimum. But when observing the behavior of family members, you need to obtain their consent and explain the purpose of the task. If a person engages in self-observation, then he can study any area of his life. All data about the subjects remains confidential, psychologists have no right to disclose them. Only the results obtained can be published without indicating names, addresses and other personal information.
Observation stages:
- object selection;
- data registration;
- creating a plan;
- selection of information processing method;
- carrying out the procedure itself;
- interpretation of data.
At the first stage, the psychologist selects the object and subject, the time and place of observation. He then selects the most appropriate research method and records all the data. After planning and choosing processing methods, he proceeds directly to the observation itself. The results obtained are interpreted to produce a report.
Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method
The advantages of the observation method are:
- direct perception and recording of signs in real time;
- efficiency of obtaining information;
- objectivity and specificity of data;
- more accurate measurement of the intensity of acts or modes of behavior;
- the ability to test indirect methods of obtaining information (questionnaires and questionnaires);
- removing the influence of attitudes on the stereotypicality of questionnaire answers and corresponding forms of psychological defense;
- the possibility of a holistic assessment of the social situation.
The disadvantages of the observation method include:
- limited observation capabilities (not all situations can be found in life and the appropriate conditions can be created);
- strong influence of the attitudes and mental states of the observer;
- perceptual readiness to confirm one’s hypothesis;
- the possibility of researcher fatigue due to monotony;
- the influence of the researcher and the persons observed by him on each other;
- difficulties of interpretation due to causal-attributive distortions;
- significant time investment;
- the behavior of those observed is not always or not always unambiguously related to the mental phenomena that are being studied;
- errors of personal and psychological origin: a) “halo effect”, based on the generalized impression of the observer, a tendency to assess the situation in “black and white”;
- b) the “condescension effect,” which consists of the tendency to give an overly positive assessment of what is happening under the influence of a truly positive, but private trait;
- c) “error of central tendency”, which consists in the desire to average estimates of observed processes, because extreme signs of behavior are less common;
- d) a logical error based on the falsity of a judgment about the close connection of any human qualities (“courtesy”^ “good nature”);
- e) “contrast error”, i.e. emphasizing features of the observed that are opposite to those of the observer;
- f) “first impression” stereotypes of a professional, ethnic, age level (for example, the observer’s stereotypes, previously formed in relation to teenagers in general, police officers in general, etc., affect the observed persons - representatives of the same categories).
Differences between observation and experiment:
- Control and management of the independent variable is higher in an experiment;
- In observation, control of side effects is very weak;
- Observational hypotheses are less rigorous and clear-cut;
- Observation has a less rigorous procedure and less precise measurement of psychological phenomena.
What is observation? Types of Observations
What is observation? This is a research method that is used in psychology for the organized and purposeful perception and study of an object. It is used where the intervention of an observer can disrupt the process of interaction between the individual and the environment. This method is especially needed when you need to get a complete picture of what is happening and understand people’s behavior.
What kind of observation is there? Observation is a specially organized and recorded perception of an object.
It can be indirect and direct, internal and external, uninvolved and included, indirect and direct, selective and continuous, laboratory and field. According to its systematicity, it is divided into: 1. Non-systematic observation is a method in which a generalized picture of the behavior of a group of people or an individual under certain conditions is created. At the same time, the goal is not to fix the cause-and-effect relationship and formulate strict descriptions of phenomena.
2. Systematic, which is carried out according to a strictly defined plan. The researcher records behavioral characteristics and environmental conditions.
Based on the objects recorded, it is divided into:
1. Selective observation is a method in which the observer records only some parameters of behavior.
2. Continuous, in which the researcher records all behavioral features without exception.
According to the form of observation there are:
1. Conscious observation is a way in which the person being observed knows that he is being observed.
In this case, the observed person is usually aware of the goals of the study. But there are cases when the object is given false surveillance targets. This is done due to ethical concerns regarding the findings. Disadvantages of the conscious type of observation: the psychological influence of the observer on the object, which is why it is often necessary to make several observations of the object. Features: the observer can influence the behavior and actions of the object, which, if not thought through, can greatly change the results; those observed, in turn, may, due to some psychological reasons, pass off false actions as their usual ones, become embarrassed or give free rein to their emotions; such observation cannot be carried out in a person's daily life. 2. Internal unconscious observation is a method in which the observed people do not know anything about the fact that they are being observed. In this case, the researcher becomes part of the observation system. An example would be a situation where a psychologist infiltrates a group of hooligans and does not communicate his intentions. This form of observation is convenient for qualitative research of behavior in small groups. In this case, the presence of an observer becomes natural, which does not in any way affect the results of the study. Disadvantages of unconscious observation: difficulty in obtaining results; the researcher may become embroiled in a conflict of values. Features: the object under study knows nothing that it is being observed; the researcher receives a lot of information about what is being observed. 3. External unconscious observation is a method in which the object under study knows nothing about the observation, and the observer himself carries out his work without direct contact with the object. This method is convenient because the observer does not constrain the behavior of the observed and does not provoke their false actions.
Systematic and complete studies
Depending on the systematicity, types of observation are divided into systematic and non-systematic.
Systematic observations are carried out according to a pre-created plan and schedule. The concept of systematicity is considered here in two aspects:
- Procedural. There are clearly defined tasks and goals, and a working hypothesis is formulated. The observer's actions are determined and ordered in advance. You can also observe a well-thought-out system of recorded indicators.
- Temporary. Multiple observations are planned and balanced in advance. Simply put, a person is observed, some manifestations of character are recorded, and this procedure is repeated when his life situation changes or he reaches a certain number of years. For example, through time observation it was found that a person's character changes every seven years.
On the other hand, there are non-systematic studies that do not have a specific plan of action. The procedural aspect is manifested in the uncertainty of tasks and there is no provision for recording facts. The time aspect is expressed in conducting multiple observations randomly.
Another type of statistical observation is called complete. The main task of the researcher is to cover and record all available information about the subject of study. Typically, this method is used to better study the object of study. However, there are situations when such an approach is a necessary measure. This happens in cases where it is unknown what factors influenced a person’s behavior.
With incomplete observation, the researcher pays attention to the optimal number of factors on which certain conclusions can be drawn. Before starting an observation, the researcher makes a list of factors that need to be paid attention to, usually in order to eliminate unwanted information gaps.
