Methodology and principles of psychology. Methods of psychology.

Definition 1

General psychology is a branch of science that studies the emergence and formation of cognitive processes, states and patterns of the human psyche, and generalizes various psychological research and knowledge.

The object of study of general psychology is the psyche of living beings, how they interact with the world around them, how they realize their desires and impulses. From the point of view of modern science, the psyche is a mediator between the subjective and the objective, and also provides knowledge about what is internal and external, bodily and mental.

The subject of psychology is man as a subject of activity, the systemic qualities of his self-regulation; patterns of formation and functioning of the human psyche, his ability to reflect the world, cognize it and regulate his interaction with it.

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The task of psychology is to systematize knowledge and present it in such a form that every educated person can independently study this discipline.

Representatives of different professions encounter this science - not only psychologists, but also sociologists, lawyers, and so on, since many need to know the patterns of development of the human psyche, the formation of internal processes, and personality traits.

General psychology pays attention to a person’s mental activity, his character, thinking, temperament, experienced emotions, perception, and memory abilities. These data are not considered in isolation, but in connection with human life and the world around him. What is important is what happens inside a person during mental and cognitive processes, and how a person’s relationships with people of different social groups occur.

Basic principles of general psychology

Definition 2

The principles of psychology are the starting points that determine the understanding of the essence and origins of the human psyche, the features of its development and formation, the mechanisms of functioning and forms of manifestation, as well as ways of approaching its study and change.

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The principles of psychology contain the basic patterns inherent in the human psyche. These principles emerged as a result of long and painstaking research.

The principles of general psychology are:

1. The principle of reflection. This principle reveals an understanding of what the essence of the human psyche is, its characteristics and features.
2. The principle of determinism. This principle reveals the causes of the emergence and development of the psyche. The human psyche is not an independent “subject”. It is formed as a result of the interaction of various factors of biological, natural, and social origin.
3. The principle of activity. This principle implies that when studying mental phenomena it is necessary to take into account that external and internal factors influence the formation of the human psyche.
4. The principle of development. This principle reflects the development of the psyche. He explains that it is dynamic, not static. It is necessary to consider the human psyche as a result of social interaction, as well as the interaction of the surrounding world, including interpersonal relationships, on human consciousness
5. The principle of unity and interconnection. This principle is based on the knowledge that only subjective (how a person thinks, what he believes) and objective (how a person acts, reacts to certain events) manifestation of the psyche can give a complete answer to the question of what the human psyche is.
6. The principle of a systems approach. This principle states that only a systematic approach to the study of the human psyche can be considered correct. It is necessary to take into account not only psychological factors, but also physiological ones.
7. The principle of relative independence. This principle indicates that any psychological and physiological phenomenon has its own diversity, patterns and principles of development.
8. The principle of a personal approach, taking into account public interests. This principle states that true knowledge can only be revealed as a result of research into the interests, needs, life experiences and characteristics of a group of people.

Ethics

Ethical principles of work in the activities of a psychologist were formulated at the dawn of the formation of science as a branch of medical knowledge. Ethics itself deals with the study of the moral and moral aspects of a particular industry.

In modern domestic psychology, ethical principles have also acquired legal significance in connection with the increased role in protecting information about the individual, religious and cultural clashes and disagreements.

And since in psychology the subject and the object are actually one person (a person and his mental characteristics, which he forms, realizes and regulates), moral standards have increased in importance when a psychologist works with a patient.

Ethical principles in psychology consist of the following postulates:

1. Respectful and responsible attitude towards the rights of the individual and citizen : the psychologist respects freedom of speech, choice, religion, and also evaluates information without his own subjective biased opinion. Also, the work of a specialist should not disrupt a person’s social status, health and personal relationships. At the same time, the specialist creates equal conditions for all patients, without giving preference.
2. Preservation of information about the client: in his work, the psychologist is guided by confidentiality in relation to the person and all information about him.
   This is ensured by keeping the data confidential and anonymous; the specialist also does not seek to obtain additional information about the patient from other sources other than his work. It is also prohibited to film or record psychological counseling without the prior consent of the patient.
3. Awareness of the person: the psychologist is obliged to explain in an accessible form and at the request of the client the essence of the study, the human condition and methods of influence. The patient has the right to full information about his psychological state, as well as to refuse this information if desired.
4. Voluntary : psychological assistance is provided to a person with his consent; forced participation in psychological experiments and experiments in a work or educational community and discrimination on this basis are also not allowed.
5. Professionalism : a psychologist must have an appropriate level of training, which must be confirmed by certificates or other documents; if other specialists are involved in counseling, they must also meet the established requirements.
   A person has the right to contact another specialist in parallel with counseling and use the information previously received.
6. Reliability and completeness of presentation : the psychologist is obliged to provide truthful, accurate and complete information to the client about his rights, capabilities, condition, methods of research and therapy.
7. “Do no harm” - the specialist must be guided primarily by the good of the patient; the primary task of counseling is to help; one cannot influence the patient’s psyche for the purpose of personal self-affirmation. This also means avoiding conflicts between the client and the specialist due to disagreement (worldviews, points of view, etc.).
8. Objectivity : a psychologist must conduct an analysis regardless of any external factors and influences. For example, in occupational psychology it is unacceptable to interpret the results of research or therapy in one way or another in favor of the manager or employer.

A psychologist at work must have the following qualities::

• high level of professionalism;
• directness;
• honesty;
• personal detachment;
• ethical awareness (knowledge of the boundaries and methods of influence, taking into account moral, ethical and ethical standards);
• humanity.

Methods of general psychology

In order to translate existing principles into reality, some practical research methods are used. These include:

• observation;
• conversation;
• experiment;
• testing;
• auxiliary and intermediate research methods.

The observation process is divided into the following stages:

1. Setting goals and objectives.
2. Definition of the situation, object and subject.
3. Determination of methods that have the least impact on the object under study and provide the necessary knowledge.
4. Determining the method of data recording.
5. Processing of received data.

A conversation involves communication between the researcher and the subject with a discussion of problems and questions, the answers to which are needed by both the researcher and the subject.

An experiment involves artificially creating the necessary conditions for the subject and recording the results.

Testing is a process that involves answering short tasks that are similar for everyone, usually with ready-made answer options. Tests help determine the presence of certain mental qualities in a tested group of people or an individual. Some tests can make predictions about the development or degradation of the disease, as well as establish a diagnosis.

Various approaches and theories

Integrity in psychology is a general concept given in the dictionary of psychological terms and implying autonomy, internal consistency and at the same time independence of an object or phenomenon from the influence of other environmental phenomena surrounding it (“Dictionary of Psychological Terms”).

Depending on the object in psychology they differ:

Personal integrity

Integrity in psychology is, in relation to a person, a combination of its parts, creating a strong and harmonious foundation. Giving this definition of personality integrity, popular psychologist and author of many scientific works N.I. Kozlov speaks about the external, or general integrity of the personality, meaning the harmonious unity of its physical, mental, spiritual and moral life.

Personal integrity presupposes the correspondence of a person’s inner life with his external activities. For example, a true Christian believer will not be able to serve in the army, since he will be forced to violate the commandments regarding the refusal to kill and cause harm to human health. Carrying out such actions that contradict his inner beliefs can violate his integrity and lead to serious mental anguish.

In psychology, the internal integrity of a person is usually understood as a person’s ability in critical situations to remain true to his life position and holistic orientation. Such a person must be open to people and at the same time be in harmony with his inner world, and, if necessary, openly declare his beliefs.

A holistic personality, as interpreted by N.I. Kozlova is an individual with a stable system of values ​​and worldview, who has confidence in the correctness of his chosen thoughts and actions, and is ready to be held accountable for all his actions. A striking example of a holistic personality, according to psychologists, is Jesus Christ.

Psychologist and head of the Baikal Instructor School TCTC, author of many articles Chursina T.M. notes that the psychological integrity of the individual in its structure resembles an “inner core”, manifested in a high level of satisfaction with life and the joy of human existence.

According to the specialist, such a person is very pleasant to communicate with, prone to optimism, creation and support of the positive aspirations of other people. A person with integrity is rational in his decisions and acts based on the best intentions, but at the same time is able to stubbornly resist the destructive actions of others.

The antipode of a holistic personality in psychology is the concept of a “fragmented personality,” the internal elements of which are in constant conflict with each other and do not strive for common interaction.

According to psychologist N.I. Kozlov, psychological integrity is not genetically inherent in a person, but is formed under the influence of the immediate environment and external influences.

Ways to form personal integrity:

Integrity of perception

Integrity in psychology is a person’s ability to perceive, based on the individual’s ability to perceive any object or objective situation as an integral system, even if any of its parts cannot be seen at a certain moment (for example, the internal part of an object).

For the first time reflected in Gestalt psychology by the German scientists M. Wertheimer and W. Köhler, the problem was understood by the integrity of perception - the initial property of the brain, regulated by the laws of the subconscious.

Soviet psychologists understood the integrity of perception as part of the psychological integrity inherent in the person perceiving the object. Moreover, the image that appears in his mind and reflects the existing reality is the totality of all its components, regardless of their presence at a certain moment.

The degree of formation of image clarity at the moment of perception of an object is based on the anticipation of its actually not perceived parts. An example of the integrity of perception could be a person who observed only the head and shoulders of a passerby, but thanks to the integrity of his consciousness, he perfectly understands the position of the arms, torso and body, as well as the gait of the passerby.

Integrity-ego

Integrity-ego is in psychology a commonality of a person’s ideas about himself, allowing him to feel his own uniqueness.

E. Erikson, in his “Theory of Personality Development,” covering the entire life space of an individual (from infancy to old age), notes that the child’s ego (“I”) is gradually formed under the influence of historical conditions, changing social prescriptions, cultural aspects and value systems.

The “I” (ego) in Erikson’s theory is an autonomous system that interacts with reality through perception, thinking, attention and memory. Thus, a person interacting with the environment in the process of his development gradually becomes more competent in his ideas about his own essence.

Ego integrity is a characteristic that allows a person to feel unique, helps to fight the despair that appears with aging and is described by him as an opportunity to gain wisdom (“ego integrity before despair”). In accordance with the “Theory of Development”, at the final stage, having gone through identity crises, the individual conducts a “review of his life”, while experiencing either satisfaction from what has been achieved, or despair and pain for previously made mistakes.

Soviet and Russian psychologist and publicist N.I. Kozlov understood the “integrity of the ego” (ego-identity) as a feeling that arises in an individual when he realizes the continuity of his “I” at different stages of life. Ego-identity, also, according to the scientist, is the main factor responsible for the formation of personal maturity.

Z. Freud considered the integrity of the ego as an intermediate part between the id and the superego, responsible for the connection and balance of a person with the external world around him. The task of the ego, according to S. Freud, includes the need to achieve balance and find a compromise between the primitive impulses of the individual, morality and existing reality.

It was followed by defining ego-integrity as a necessary part for the formation of the personality structure.

Gail Sheehy defined the integrity-ego stage of development of “second adulthood”, which occurs at the age of 65-85+.

In a transpersonal approach

The transpersonal approach in psychology defines integrity as the harmonious fusion of physical, emotional, mental and spiritual aspects of well-being, as well as social responsibility. A characteristic difference between the technique and other psychological approaches is the inclusion, in addition to the rest, of a spiritual component.

The basis of the content of transpersonal psychology is life experience that allows one to cope with spiritual problems of the individual through mythical, archetypal, personal or transpersonal components.

K. Jung was one of the first to appreciate the value of the transpersonal psychological approach as a way to free a person from pathological mental suffering.

Subsequently, representatives of transpersonal psychology (S. Grof, K. Wilber, T. McKenna) criticized C. Jung’s theory, believing that the very concept of self is harmful because it misleads a person about his nature.

The founders of the transpersonal approach imagine the surrounding world as an integral structure, with the simultaneous presence in it of many parallel and simultaneously existing realities that have equal ontological status and do not have clear boundaries between themselves, previously invented by psychologists.

The “concept of self” and “theories of personality” introduced by S. Freud, C. Jung and E. Erikson according to the transpersonal psychological approach were recognized as harmful, as misleading a person regarding his true nature.

The world here is interpreted as an integral arena of action of “above-world” forces, aimed at self-knowledge, and a person is understood not as a subject of activity, but as a temporary form that takes on a certain “spirit”. The experiences and experiences of an individual are understood only as fragments of the experience of this “spirit”.

In Gestalt theory

Founded by F. Perls, Gestalt therapy takes as its basis a holistic approach to the study of man, with all his mental, physical, spiritual and social aspects. Specialists working in this direction help people understand the processes happening to them at this very moment, thereby teaching them to accept responsibility for all events occurring in life, as well as possible changes.

Perls himself defined “gestalt” as a single whole, which, when destroyed, manifests itself in many fragments. The form he created invariably strives for unity, and in its absence leads a person to an incomplete situation that puts pressure on him.

According to Perls, there may be numerous unfinished gestalts hidden in people themselves, which can be overcome quite easily after careful study and elaboration. A huge advantage of Gestalt therapy is the ability not to try to penetrate the unconscious part, but to consider problems that are on the surface.

Integrity in Gestalt therapy is directly related to a person being considered exclusively as an integral being, without artificial division into the physical and mental, which violates a person’s understanding of his inner world. Integrity here is based on the interaction of the individual with the space around him, being in contact with it and exerting a certain influence on it.

The concept of “integrity” in psychology is closely related to the study of personality, its psychological, social and spiritual aspects. Originating from the term “self” introduced by C. Jung, the principle of integrity is intended to reflect the structure of the human personality, the integrity of its perception, is one of the foundations of Erikson’s “Theory of Human Development”, and is also used as the basis for the development of Gestalt psychology and the transpersonal approach to the study of human consciousness.

Schools of general psychology

There are also many schools that adhere to the above principles and use research methods in their practice. These schools may include:

• psychoanalysis;
• structuralism;
• Freudianism
• transpersonal psychology;
• behaviorism;
• Gestalt psychology;
• individual psychology;
• cognitive psychology;
• functionalism;
• humanistic psychology;
• analytical psychology;
• domestic psychology.

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Coursework, abstracts or other works

Principles of the psychology of visual information perception

In the case when a person evaluates an image, only a conclusion is formed in his mind, but there is no process itself that determines his attitude towards what he saw. In this way, a person develops the ability to immediately determine his position on what he sees.

It should also be noted that acquaintance with any subject begins from its upper left corner. Next, the gaze moves towards the lower right corner. All people are guided by this principle, regardless of whether one of them is left-handed or right-handed.

Only after passing this stage does a person fully evaluate the image with its characteristic features. For example, initially preference was given to bright elements, then the transition was slowly made to details with a certain semantic load.