Every person, at one time or another in his life, is faced with a situation that shocks, frightens him or causes him to experience severe pain. Memories of this can be so unpleasant that the psyche throws them deep into the subconscious, intending to deal with them at another, more appropriate time. This psychological process is called repression, also known as motivated forgetting or dissociative amnesia.
There is heated debate among those who study and practice psychology about repressed memories. Can they really be restored, and how can they not be made worse?
In this article:
What is repression and how does it work Examples of psychological repression Repression of memories: good or bad How to know that you have repressed memories
What is repression?
Repression (suppression, repression) is a type of psychological defense mechanism that involves keeping certain thoughts, feelings or impulses out of consciousness. The purpose of keeping unacceptable desires or thoughts out of consciousness is to prevent or minimize feelings of anxiety.
How does preemption work?
This process involves pushing painful or disturbing thoughts into the unconscious in order to remain “unaware” of them. This concept was first identified and described by Sigmund Freud, who played a major role in the development of psychoanalysis.
It's important to note that suppression is more than just avoiding a problem or trying not to think about it. True repression, from Freud's point of view, involves completely hiding something from awareness.
When a thought, feeling or urge is suppressed, you don't even know it exists. However, these hidden feelings may still influence your behavior and relationships.
To understand how repression works, you can look at how Sigmund Freud viewed the mind - he believed that the human mind is in many ways like an iceberg.
Think about what an iceberg would look like if you were looking at it from above. Only a small tip of the iceberg is visible above the surface of the water - this is similar to our consciousness.
Conscious mind
When we talk about consciousness being just the “tip of the iceberg,” we mean that only a small part of the iceberg is actually visible. It includes all the thoughts, feelings and memories that we are currently aware of or that we can become aware of.
Unconscious mind
Below the surface of the water there is a huge part of the iceberg that simply dwarfs what is above the water. The underwater part is like the subconscious - a huge reservoir of impulses, memories and thoughts hidden from our consciousness.
Freud believed that it is the unconscious that has a decisive influence on personality and can lead to mental disorder.
We may not be aware of what is in the unconscious, but its contents influence our behavior in various ways. By helping patients uncover their unconscious feelings, Freud realized that there was a mechanism that actively resisted these efforts to hide “unacceptable” thoughts.
Freud called this process repression, believing that it plays one of the most important roles in the human psyche. He even suggested that repression is "the cornerstone on which the entire structure of psychoanalysis is based."
Repression was the first defense mechanism identified by Freud. He considered it the most important. The process of Freudian psychoanalysis was based on the idea that bringing unconscious feelings into awareness could lead to relief from mental suffering.
Repression is a psychological defense mechanism in which a person redirects a negative emotion from its original source to a less threatening recipient.
A classic example of defense is repressed (displaced) aggression. If a person is angry but cannot direct their anger at the source without consequences, they may “take out” their anger on people or things that pose less of a risk.
Psychoanalytic treatment of neurosis
As noted above, suppressed as a result of repression
affect becomes
free
.
“...repression mechanisms have at least one thing in common - the removal of bound energy
." (Freud. “Repression”)
This free affect
and causes suffering, turning into
a symptom
, causing
depression
or otherwise annoying, transforming through
psychological defenses
.
“...it is not true that repression removes from consciousness all derivatives [derivatives] of what was initially repressed. Access to consciousness turns out to be completely free for them if, due to distortion or due to the large number of connecting links between them, they have sufficiently moved away from the main mental idea, primarily associated with drive. Using psychoanalytic technique, we constantly evoke in the patient such derivative products of the repressed, which can pass through the censorship of his consciousness either due to their distortion or distance from the primary repressed idea.” (ibid.)
It is thanks to the use of free technology
associations, the psychoanalyst can get to the repressed representation and the associated affect.
The task of psychoanalysis
is to reconnect
affect
with its representation and help the patient to experience this affect.
Thanks to such elaboration
, affect loses its sharpness, the representation turns into “just” a memory (narrative), the symptom disappears, depression weakens (see
Elaboration and reconstruction in the case of treatment of depression
).
TOP
Defense Mechanisms
When people experience negative emotions or urges, they often look for ways to cope with these unwanted impulses. Unlike the conscious coping mechanisms we use to manage daily stress, defense mechanisms operate on an unconscious level.
Repression, like many other psychological defense mechanisms, usually occurs subconsciously - the person is not aware that it is happening.
Defense mechanisms are one of the ways the mind unconsciously tries to reduce anxiety and restore emotional balance.
Psychological defenses operate without our awareness and help us cope with threatening people, things or the environment. We may not be aware of many feelings and impulses, but they influence our behavior and can cause anxiety.
When repression kicks in, our mind senses that reacting to the source of our irritation may be unacceptable or even dangerous. Instead, it finds a less threatening subject (or object) that can serve as a safer outlet for our negative emotions.
Sublimation
Sigmund Freud believed that a certain subtype of repression, called sublimation, serves as an important source of inspiration and creativity.
Sublimation involves the displacement of unacceptable sexual urges towards non-sexual activities (work and creativity) that are productive and socially acceptable.
Sublimation provides a constructive outlet for unacceptable urges.
Story
Sigmund Freud's daughter Anna Freud was one of the first psychologists to compile a list of defense mechanisms. Repression, however, was not included in this list, described in her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense (first published in Germany in 1936).
Anna Freud later said that although her list included several famous defenses, she considered it far from definitive. Subsequent pioneers of psychology identified repression as an important ego defense mechanism.
Calculation types plan forms
In order for the user to view and change the data contained in the plan of calculation types, the system supports several forms of its presentation:
- the system can automatically generate all the necessary forms;
- the developer has the opportunity to create his own forms, which the system will use instead of the default forms.
Calculation type form
The calculation type form is used to view and change data for individual calculation types. As a rule, it presents data in a form that is easy to understand and edit.
Calculation type plan list form
Calculation type plan list form To view calculation types, use the list form. It allows:
- navigate through the list;
- add, mark for deletion and delete calculation types;
- sort and select the displayed information according to several criteria.
In addition to these two forms for calculation types, a form for selecting specific calculation types from the list is supported. It usually contains the minimum set of information necessary to select one or another type of calculation.
Repression Research
Research on the validity of repression has been mixed. A 1998 study found that crowding out was poorly supported by empirical data.
However, more recent research has supported the theory that states of physical and emotional arousal tend to transfer from one situation to another.
For example, although you may hold back in public when your reaction would be inappropriate, suppressing your feelings will not make them go away forever. Your emotional state will remain the same.
Later, when you find yourself in an environment where you can react with fewer consequences, you will release the feelings you previously suppressed.
Other studies have also found support for defense mechanisms, including displacement, as important for human health and relationships.
Examining data from a 70-year longitudinal study, a team of researchers found that psychological defense mechanisms can affect both the body and the mind.
In their paper published in 2013, the researchers stated that subjects who used adaptive defense mechanisms (including displacement) in midlife had better physical health later in life.
Researchers have suggested that protection plays a key role in creating strong and harmonious social relationships that promote improved physical health.
Negation
This is the desire to avoid new information that is incompatible with existing ideas about oneself.
Protection manifests itself in ignoring potentially alarming information and avoiding it. It is like a barrier located right at the entrance of the perceiving system. It does not allow unwanted information into it, which is then irreversibly lost for a person and subsequently cannot be restored. Thus, denial leads to the fact that some information, either immediately or subsequently, cannot reach consciousness.
When in denial, a person becomes especially inattentive to those areas of life and facets of events that are fraught with trouble for him. For example, a manager can criticize his employee for a long time and emotionally and suddenly discover with indignation that he has long been “switched off” and does not react “in any way” to moral teachings.
Denial can allow a person to preventively (proactively) isolate himself from traumatic events. This is how, for example, fear of failure works, when a person strives not to find himself in a situation in which he could fail. For many people, this manifests itself in avoiding competition or giving up activities that one is not good at, especially in comparison to others.
The stimulus for triggering denial can be not only external, but also internal, when a person tries not to think about something, to drive away thoughts of unpleasant things. If you can’t admit something to yourself, then the best way out is, if possible, not to look into this terrible and dark corner. Often, having done something at the wrong time or in the wrong way, but nothing can be corrected, “defense” forces a person to ignore a dangerous situation and behave as if nothing special is happening.
A generalized assessment of the danger of information is made with its preliminary holistic perception and a rough emotional assessment as “the maturation of something unwanted.” Such an assessment leads to a weakening of attention when detailed information about this dangerous event is completely excluded from subsequent processing. Outwardly, a person either fences himself off from new information (“It is there, but not for me”), or does not notice, believing that it does not exist. Therefore, many people, before starting to watch a movie or read a new book, ask the question: “What is the ending, good or bad?”
The statement “I believe” denotes some special state of mind in which everything that comes into conflict with the subject of faith tends to be denied. Sincere and sufficiently strong faith organizes such an attitude towards all incoming information when a person, without knowing it, subjects it to careful preliminary sorting, selecting only what serves to preserve faith.
Faith tends to be much more universal and definitive than understanding. When you already have faith in something, there is no room for a new one. A person rejects new ideas, often without even trying to give a rational explanation for this behavior. Any attempt on an object of veneration evokes the same reaction from the individual as if it were an attempt on her life.
How does preemption work?
Imagine that your manager reprimanded you at work. Taking out your anger or frustration directly on your boss would not only be unwise, it could even cost you your job. Instead, you bottle up (suppress) your emotions for the rest of the day.
My friend does this! ☝
Once you get home, you may take out your anger on your unsuspecting roommate or find yourself overreacting to your kids' misbehavior.
The reaction to the triggering event is most often disproportionately strong.
The anger you felt towards your boss is eventually released, but in an indirect way. The consequences of yelling at your roommate or your kids will be less severe than if you took it out on your boss or co-workers.
The object or person who becomes the subject of the repressed feelings may vary, but usually the one who is less dangerous (or even powerless) is chosen.
If you've ever taken out negative feelings on a friend, family member, or complete stranger when you were upset about something else, then you were using repression as a defense mechanism (even if you didn't realize it).
Moving Examples
Here are some sample scenarios (many of which may sound familiar) that illustrate the bias:
- The boss scolds an employee for poor performance during a presentation. An employee goes to lunch at a local restaurant, where he yells at the waiters because of a small mistake with his order.
- You are unhappy with your spouse because he does not help you with household chores. When you ask your children to start chores and they respond with whining, your anger erupts. You yell at them, accusing them of never helping around the house.
- A man is attracted to his wife's best friend, but he knows his actions will have disastrous consequences. Instead, the desire he feels is unconsciously repressed and he develops a sexual fetish for glasses like those worn by his wife's best friend.
- You lose your job and have difficulty finding a new one. Fearing that you will soon be unable to pay your bills, you begin to take out your frustration and sense of failure on immigrants, blaming them for your difficulty finding work.
Notes
- Freud Z.
Repression (1915) //
Freud Z.
Psychology of the unconscious. - M.: Firma STD, 2006. - P. 79-110. - Janet Malcolm.
Psychoanalysis: The Impossible Profession. - 1988. - P. 15. - Freud Z.
Five lectures on psychoanalysis. - Penguin, 1995. - pp. 28-29. - Freud Z.
On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement. — 1914. - (English). archive.org. Retrieved February 8, 2022.
- (English). lawbooks.news. Retrieved February 8, 2022.
- Freud S.
On Metapsychology. — P. 147, 184. - Freud S.
On Psychopathology. — P. 245. - Freud S.
On Psychopathology. — P. 245. - Freud S.
Five Lectures. - P. 35. - Fenichel O. (English)Russian.
The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis. - London, 1946. - P. 153. - Lacan J.
The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis. - 1994. - P. 176, 236, 251. - R. Skynner/J.
Cleese. Families and how to survive them. - 1993. - P. 36-37.
Unintended consequences
Repression can cause an unintended chain reaction. Repressed aggression, for example, can become cyclical.
For example, imagine an employee who is angry with his boss. He takes out his anger on his wife when they return home. Now they themselves are angry, spouses can be irritable with their children, and they, in turn, can take out their frustration on each other.
Repressed interpersonal aggression can also lead to prejudice against certain social groups.
For example, some scholars argue that the hostility that Germans felt toward the Jewish people after World War I may have been an example of repressed feelings of anger over the economic consequences of the war.
Instead of directing their collective anger at their own actions or their own government, people redirected their anger toward a group of people they perceived as less dangerous targets.
This phenomenon is also known as scapegoating.
Split
Splitting refers to the transition to black and white thinking, thinking in terms of “good” or “bad” and devoid of any uncertainties.
Actually, this protective mechanism is aimed at getting rid of uncertainties. Our experience is contradictory, and it is difficult for us to bring it into a unified whole.
Often they resort to splitting in order to characterize themselves as a good person. The formulation “I have both good and bad qualities, so I can’t definitely be called either bad or good” suits few people. But if we reduce everything to two possible options, we have the right to call ourselves good.
Cleavage is also used to characterize social groups. Representatives of the same social group differ from each other, but it is more convenient for us to endow them all with the same set of qualities.
What does the displacement depend on?
Defense mechanisms are very common and are usually a normal aspect of daily functioning. Repression as a defense helps us channel emotions and impulses that may be considered inappropriate or harmful into healthier, safer, or more productive outlets.
When used correctly, defense mechanisms such as repression protect us from negative feelings, help minimize frustration, protect our self-esteem and manage our stress levels.
But defense mechanisms such as repression can also be unhelpful when people rely on them too much or when they lead to problematic behavior and interactions with others.
Excessive use of defense mechanisms has been associated with psychological disorders and impairments in normal functioning.
Repression is a way to redirect feelings, but it can also cause harm. There are several factors that influence how and when displacement occurs.
- Age
Young children express their feelings more directly. Therefore, they are more likely to express their negative emotions towards the original target (regardless of the appropriateness of the response).
For example: a 4-year-old child, when he is unhappy, will most likely simply yell at his parent. A 14-year-old child may replace his disappointment in his parent with a quarrel with his younger brother. Children learn to cope with unpleasant feelings.
- Intensity
Severely upset feelings may lead to greater expression of emotion towards the substitute target. An inappropriate urge (such as wanting to hit someone) may be expressed as an emotional outburst (such as yelling at a spouse).
- Frequency
Most people have experienced taking out their negative emotions on a secondary goal. Although repression is a normal response, it can develop into inappropriate or abusive behavior.
Relying on repression as a defense mechanism to cope with all your emotional disturbances will be futile and may cause harm.
Reactive education
Reactive education is a defense against forbidden impulses by expressing opposing impulses in behavior and thoughts. If a feeling cannot be expressed (for example, it does not correspond to social norms), it is replaced by the opposite.
For example, an older brother may experience aggression towards a younger brother, because... because of him, his parents began to pay less attention to him. Of course, showing your hatred for your brother is unacceptable, so aggression can unconsciously transform into overly active care.
Or a more banal example: a boy who pulls the pigtail of a girl he likes.
What can you do?
Over-reliance on movement or any other defense mechanism can be problematic, or at least unhelpful.
If you are concerned about the use of repression as a defense mechanism, you can consult a psychotherapist or psychologist (read about the difference here).
Here are some ways to look at your own behavior to better understand whether you're using bias usefully:
- Grade
One of the first steps is also one of the most difficult: observing your behavior and actions and determining whether bias may be causing them. Displacement is not something that can be easily seen.
It may be helpful to work with a therapist at this point. He can put your behavior into perspective and help you see things from a more objective point of view.
The therapist is able to observe (and point out) inconsistencies between your behavior and your words, body language, or other cues.
For example, you may tell your therapist that you don't mind your spouse working late and on weekends, but your body language and speech may indicate otherwise.
As you talk about your behavior, it may become clear that when you are irritable with your children in the evenings, it really is a sign of the frustration you feel towards your spouse.
You can get specialist help here.
- Reflection
Reflection is a strategy therapists can use to help you recognize when you are using defense mechanisms such as repression. The therapist reflects your feelings back to you in a way that encourages you to think about what you have done or said.
The purpose of using reflection techniques is to identify hidden worries or fears that played a role in your behavior.
For example, when you talk to your therapist about how you express anger at a co-worker, you may be revealing one of your underlying problems—that your new manager doesn't recognize your talents and efforts.
Instead of expressing your emotions to your boss (a threatening goal), you took your frustrations out on a coworker (a less threatening goal).
- Reframing
Once you begin to recognize episodes of unhealthy bias in your own life, the next step is to find intentional ways to change your thinking and behavior.
For example, if you are yelling at your spouse because you are pushing your frustrations out of work, stop, step back, and take a moment to regain control.
When you find yourself engaging in inappropriate behavior caused by repression, try to reframe the situation and find a healthier outlet for your feelings.
Make a conscious effort to redirect your negative feelings towards an appropriate goal. Alternatives may include writing about the situation and how you are feeling on a piece of paper, engaging in sports, exercise or hobbies.
Introjection
This is the tendency to appropriate the beliefs and attitudes of other people without criticism, without trying to change them and make them your own.
A person endows himself with traits and properties of other people. For example, he takes on the functions of an annoying mentor, because the manifestation of such a trait in other people annoys or traumatizes him. In order to relieve internal conflict and avoid psychological discomfort, a person appropriates the beliefs, values and attitudes of other people. The earliest introject is parental teaching, which is absorbed by a person without critically thinking about its value.
An example of introjection: an impressionable man tries to hold back his tears because he has learned from his parents that an adult should not cry in the presence of strangers. Or a person constantly criticizes himself because he has internalized (introjected) his parents’ attitude towards him.
The likelihood of this method of protection occurring is the higher, the stronger and (or) longer the influence of external or internal blockers of desires, on the one hand, and the more impossible it is to remove these blockers and more fully fulfill one’s desires and achieve one’s goals, on the other. In this case, the impossibility of eliminating the frustrator is accompanied by the displacement of negative energy on the replacement object.
The subject's turning against himself results in the formation of physical and mental symptoms, i.e., signs of illness. Physical bodily symptoms include: cold feet and hands, sweating, cardiac arrhythmia, dizziness, severe headaches, high or low blood pressure, muscle spasms, dermatitis, bronchial asthma, etc.
