Updated July 23, 2022 868 Author: Dmitry Petrov
Hello, dear readers of the KtoNaNovenkogo.ru blog. People who are fond of reading scientific literature often come across this word.
A student who has skipped almost all his philosophy lectures comes to class, hears the professor talking about the empiricists, and becomes despondent.
In vain - this concept, with all its external complexity, in fact, even a child can understand.
Empirical and empiricism are...
The term empiricism comes from the Greek word empeiría, which translates as " experience ".
Empirical is what is revealed to us in the senses, coming from the outside, given directly, obtained experimentally.
Empiricism is a philosophical movement that originated in the 16th century. It was during this period that scientific thinking began to supplant the religious view of the structure of the world.
The founder of empiricism is the English philosopher Francis Bacon. In his opinion, science should have an exclusively practical vector of application, and its main goal is the subjugation of nature by man.
The most radical supporters of empiricism proposed to reject useless theorizing and recognize that observation is the only source of true knowledge.
Empiricism is divided into two directions:
- Materialistic . There is a reality around us that exists on its own, regardless of our consciousness. We comprehend this world with the help of our senses and draw experience from it. This sensory experience is the main source of true knowledge.
- Idealistic . The basis of experience is the totality of our sensations and ideas. Reality exists only within our consciousness, and outside of it there is nothing.
What is empiricism?
To begin with, it is worth considering the definition of empiricism , as well as determining what empiricism is, which underlies this movement.
If we first consider empirics, then this is the designation of everything that is based on experience. That is, we are talking about the use of human activity during research to obtain final results. The practice used to study involves the use of experiments as methods to ensure results.
Empiricism, which is based on empiricism, means a certain direction in the theory of knowledge, which provides for the recognition of sensory experience as . Empirics describes the content of knowledge as a description of the experience.
The current of empiricism is opposed to such movements as mysticism and rationalism. The empirical trend presupposes the absolutization of experience, the recognition of it as the best means of knowledge. It is also worth noting the role of sensory cognition, which is recognized by empirics as decisive in carrying out research. As a purely practical movement, empiricism downplays the role of methods related to the rational movement - the theoretical study of a problem and the use of calculations that do not involve obtaining practical experience.
If we consider this direction from the side of metaphysics, then empiricism can cover a wide variety of points of view, sometimes affecting dogmatic systems of thought, and sometimes, on the contrary, transforming into skepticism. This is understandable. The reason for such a scatter of possible references of empiricism to different points of view is explained by the fact that many authors give their own interpretation of the concept of “experience”. Empirics contrasts its provisions and basic ideas with the ideas of rationalism, exalting natural experience and at the same time belittling the forms of rational thinking, which are given subjective significance. Empirics and empiricism simply underestimate the theoretical role in the process of cognition.
Empirical and theoretical are two ways of cognition, or types of knowledge, which are considered canonical in the implementation of almost any research. They are qualitatively different from each other, having differences in essence, form of display and meaning of display of objective reality. If the empirical reflects the existing reality from the point of view of its external relations and connections, then the theoretical comes out of the empirical, being a systematization of materials collected during the study, while adhering to the principle of internal connections.
Basic provisions
should be noted :
- The necessity and universality of certain connections in experience is explained by the presence of certain impressions that influence the body, repeating themselves uniformly;
- In the event that a pair of well-known impressions are repeated one after another, then they form, by definition, an association of ideas, which leads to the following pattern: the appearance of one idea entails the appearance of another;
- Associations can be repeated an infinite number of times. Trying to break associative representations gathered together is impossible;
- Predispositions to associations can become inherited properties that have been accumulated over millions of generations in the form of experience. It follows from this that a person can be born with already acquired inextricable associations;
- Biological conditions are not the only conditions for assimilating the experience gained. Each individual is influenced by social conditions. This is explained by the fact that every person is born into a social environment, which accelerates the emergence of new cognitive processes in the mind, influencing the individual through its cultural processes and events.
Empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge
The empirical level of scientific knowledge is a sensory study of really existing objects and phenomena. The main task of a scientist at the empirical level is to record and group scientific facts.
A scientific fact is a statement that has been tested, confirmed and described according to certain requirements.
The following processes occur at this level :
- Collection and accumulation of empirical data about the object of study.
- Identifying valuable information that can be classified as scientific facts.
- Definition, measurement of physical quantities of the object under study.
- Comparing objects with each other to identify patterns and relationships.
Next comes the theoretical level of cognition , where mental processing of empirically obtained information occurs.
Representatives of empiricism
Empiricism gained quite wide popularity among philosophers and scientists of the time. As mentioned above, one of the first representatives of this movement was Francis Bacon. He gave this whole teaching a clearer and more harmonious form.
Other representatives include such figures as the philosopher and one of the founders of the theory of the social contract Thomas Hobbes, one of the founders of the idea of liberalism John Locke, the Scottish philosopher and historian David Hume, the founder of sociology as a science Auguste Comte and many others.
Observation as the basis of empiricism
A method that consists of targeted perception, recording the behavior and properties of the subject of research. This is not just thoughtful contemplation or a pleasant pastime.
Here is a grandmother sitting on a bench at the entrance, remembering everyone who comes in and out. From a scientific point of view, she is not an observer. There are strict requirements for this process:
- Focus and selectivity . The researcher carries out observations not at all out of boredom, but to achieve a specific goal - testing or refuting a hypothesis, collecting information. If our grandmother selectively counts how many mustachioed men enter the entrance, then the requirement will be met.
- Recording the results of observation . You need to keep an observation log and write down everything you find out.
- Systematicity . Data must be organized and recorded in a specific language - formal or natural. Here the grandmother researcher takes a thick notebook and writes: “January 10, 2019, 09:15 - a man of average build passed by, his mustache is 5 centimeters long.”
Observation includes:
- object – what we are looking at;
- subject – the researcher himself;
- technical means - with what we look (eyes, binoculars, telescope).
Observation can be direct or indirect . With direct observation, we study the object itself, and with indirect observation, we study the effects of its existence.
Some objects cannot be explored because they are too small or too far away. For example, elementary particles cannot be seen even with a powerful microscope. But when they move, they leave traces that can be recorded.
There are also two methods of observation - direct and instrumental . Direct observation is carried out using the senses - eyes, ears, hands, and instrumental observation - using technical means - telescopes, sensors, microscopes.
If you want to learn more about experiential knowledge, watch this video:
Francis Bacon - founder of empiricism
The founder of the movement is considered to be F. Bacon, thanks to whom empiricism was formalized into a mature philosophical concept. Later, a number of currents arose within it - first of all, positive and logical empiricism. Bacon insisted that for knowledge it is necessary to cleanse the perception and mind of empty idols and gain experience through experiment and observation of nature. The main idols according to Bacon: tribe, cave, market, theater. Empiricism opposes itself to rationalistic movements and religious scholasticism.
Measurement is another empirical level of knowledge
This is an empirical research method that allows you to find out the exact quantitative characteristics of the object being studied.
There is a globe, it is huge. “Huge” is a qualitative characteristic that does not provide any useful information. But “the diameter of the globe is 12.7 thousand kilometers” is a quantitative parameter that is important for science.
To carry out the measurement we will need :
- magnitude - what we will measure;
- the subject is the researcher himself with a ruler in his hands;
- methodology - scale and technical means that we will use.
Measurements can be direct or indirect . With direct measurements, the result is determined directly - apply a compass and find out the radius. With indirect measurements, the result is obtained by calculating the desired value.
To find out the area of a square, measure any side of it with a ruler and multiply this value by itself.
What does "empirical" mean?
It’s worth starting with the fact that empirical experience is a kind of tautology that is sometimes allowed to be used. The fact is that “empirical” means “knowable by experience.” Accordingly, it would be more correct to use the phrase “empirical method” rather than “empirical experience.” However, this does not change the essence - if we are talking about something empirical, this means that something is learned empirically, and not through studying other people’s conclusions, for example, by reading books, encyclopedias, watching educational programs, and so on.
Experiment is empirical knowledge of the highest form
This is a research method in which there is a controlled, targeted influence on the subject being studied . Experimentation arises from an unwillingness to wait.
A scientist wants to know what will happen if one throws one stone onto another from a great height. He would have to spend years waiting for the right event to occur. A true scientist will not waste time. He will rise to a hill and throw the stone down. This will be an experiment.
An experiment is considered reliable if, when repeated many times, it gives the same results.
So we tossed a coin and it came up heads. If you limit yourself to one single experiment, you can draw the wrong conclusion - the coin always lands heads up. But after conducting hundreds of such experiments, we will come to the correct conclusion: the distribution between heads and tails corresponds to probability theory - 50/50.
An experiment is a powerful, fast, effective empirical method of knowledge. It is characterized by a lack of pity for the object of research, which in the process can be changed beyond recognition or even destroyed .
In this regard, observation is a more passive and humane way of research.
Experiments are classified according to the objects being studied: chemical, physical, social, economic. But they can also be divided according to goals and objectives:
- research – to form new hypotheses, make guesses;
- testing – to confirm or refute existing hypotheses and theories;
- decisive - from two contradictory theories, based on the results of the experiment, the only correct one is selected.
Empirical knowledge
If we talk about the empirical method, then we cannot fail to mention empirical knowledge. This is a term used to describe lower-level rational knowledge, that is, something that a person has experienced but has not yet been able to analyze. It is with empirical knowledge that the construction of human knowledge begins. First, he learns something through experience, and then begins to analyze, rationalize, come up with ways to use it, and so on. However, it is empirical knowledge that is the lowest level from which everything begins.
Description is a recording of the results of an experiment or observation.
The description is carried out using natural language - such as this article is written in - or a formalized artificial language. In this case, graphs, diagrams, images, tables, diagrams are used.
The problem with this method is its subjectivity. The same object can be described in completely different ways.
Let's take an ordinary cat. A cat lover will talk about him in bright colors, admiring his color, character, and habits. But for an allergy sufferer, the description of the same animal will be different - a real fiend of hell.
To avoid ambiguity and inaccuracy, use the following techniques :
- standardization (what is this?) of the structure of presentation of the material;
- definition of the terms used and their meanings;
- setting criteria for applying certain assessments;
- transition from natural language to formalized form;
- comparison of information from different sources.
Description is a method that is closely related to other methods of empirical research. You can’t say that he is somehow better or worse than others. All together is a single cycle.
The results obtained during observation or experiment need to be recorded and correctly presented. Then it's time for description.
Empirical Forms
It is now worth citing two forms of empiricism that arise from different interpretations of the concept of “experience.”
There are two forms of empiricism:
- Immanent empiricism is the attempts of philosophers in different historical periods to provide explanations for the composition and consistency of human cognition with combinations of individual ideas and sensations. Such philosophical attempts by different thinkers led to different consequences. Some thus came to skepticism, others to a silent proposal of the transcendental;
- Transcendental empiricism - when mentioning this form of empirical direction, one should immediately indicate materialism, which is its most typical form. Materialism proclaims the reality of the so-called world of experience. From this point of view, true reality represents all kinds of combinations of particles of matter that move in space and at the same time interact. This is the whole world of experience. Moreover, the laws of cognition and the content of consciousness are the result of the interaction of the human body with all manifestations of its environment.
