Updated July 23, 2022 868 Author: Dmitry Petrov
Hello, dear readers of the KtoNaNovenkogo.ru blog. People who are fond of reading scientific literature often come across this word.
A student who has skipped almost all his philosophy lectures comes to class, hears the professor talking about the empiricists, and becomes despondent.
In vain - this concept, with all its external complexity, in fact, even a child can understand.
Empirical and empiricism are...
The term empiricism comes from the Greek word empeiría, which translates as " experience ".
Empirical is what is revealed to us in the senses, coming from the outside, given directly, obtained experimentally.
Empiricism is a philosophical movement that originated in the 16th century. It was during this period that scientific thinking began to supplant the religious view of the structure of the world.
The founder of empiricism is the English philosopher Francis Bacon. In his opinion, science should have an exclusively practical vector of application, and its main goal is the subjugation of nature by man.
The most radical supporters of empiricism proposed to reject useless theorizing and recognize that observation is the only source of true knowledge.
Empiricism is divided into two directions:
- Materialistic . There is a reality around us that exists on its own, regardless of our consciousness. We comprehend this world with the help of our senses and draw experience from it. This sensory experience is the main source of true knowledge.
- Idealistic . The basis of experience is the totality of our sensations and ideas. Reality exists only within our consciousness, and outside of it there is nothing.
Empirical basis of the study: examples
You can read the characteristics of the empirical base for a long time and still not figure out what it really is. Therefore, we have collected real examples of descriptions that can be found in coursework, diplomas and dissertations. Study the samples and use them as a template for your research.
Examples of describing the empirical basis of research in coursework
Coursework in Sociology
Topic: “Russian women politicians in social media: analysis of network accounts”
Empirical basis of the study: The empirical basis of the study consisted of the results of an analysis of the accounts of Russian women politicians on the social networks Twitter, Facebook, Vkontakte, Livejournal, Instagram, Odnoklassniki and YouTube. The observation was carried out from January 1, 2022 to April 8, 2022. Studying this period is enough to see how politicians commented on holidays, important events in Russia (for example, rallies on May 26 or the terrorist attack in St. Petersburg) and makes it possible to study publications over a fairly long period of time.
Accounts were selected according to the following principle:
Posts on pages must be published at least once a week, otherwise the account will be considered abandoned.
The sample includes accounts of politicians of different ranks:
- the highest echelon of power - ministers;
- deputies, press secretaries;
- local politicians.
For each group, 2-3 most popular representatives were selected. The degree of their fame and popularity is assessed using statistics of their citations in the media. It also took into account how popular their accounts were (how many followers they had).
Coursework in psychology
Topic: “Psychological analysis of the features of the formation of artificial bilingualism in autistic children”
Empirical basis of the study: The study involved two groups of children (experimental and control), numbering 15 subjects, aged 10-11 years, living in Moscow and the Moscow region, with a diagnosed autism spectrum disorder, not burdened by mental retardation.
Examples of describing the empirical basis of research in dissertations
Thesis on financial law
Topic: “Features of legal regulation of the activities of foreign legal entities on the Russian securities market”
Empirical base of the study: The factual basis of the work was statistical information from the State Statistics Committee of Russia, the Ministry of Finance of Russia, the Federal Financial Markets Service of Russia, the Bank of Russia, official materials of the Ministry of Taxes of Russia, as well as other official sources.
Graduate work in medicine
Topic: “Professional ontogenesis: medical-sociological and psychological-ethical problems of medical practice”
Empirical basis of the study: The research was conducted on the basis of the Volgograd State Medical University through a survey. The study involved junior and senior students of the medical and pediatric faculties, as well as doctors from medical institutions and the Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance Center of Volgograd and Volzhsky.
Empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge
The empirical level of scientific knowledge is a sensory study of really existing objects and phenomena. The main task of a scientist at the empirical level is to record and group scientific facts.
A scientific fact is a statement that has been tested, confirmed and described according to certain requirements.
The following processes occur at this level :
- Collection and accumulation of empirical data about the object of study.
- Identifying valuable information that can be classified as scientific facts.
- Definition, measurement of physical quantities of the object under study.
- Comparing objects with each other to identify patterns and relationships.
Next comes the theoretical level of cognition , where mental processing of empirically obtained information occurs.
Interaction
When a researcher actively interferes with the smooth flow of a natural process, and also creates artificial conditions, this does not mean that he himself influences the properties of the object, which are then attributed to nature. Examples include light pressure, radioactivity, conditioned reflexes, and the like. All of them are not inventions or inventions of specific people. But at the same time they were revealed in extreme situations, the creator of which was man himself. The procedures for obtaining and describing empirical data may vary and new combinations of interactions will be created, but the properties will remain the same. An interesting point follows from this. The characteristics obtained during the experiment can be simultaneously considered in two ways: from the point of view of human activity and nature. How should this be understood? Let's give this analogy: a researcher asks questions, and nature gives answers. The cognitive role of experiments is not only that they give people new information, but also in the emergence of new mysteries and problems, which, in turn, require new research.
Observation as the basis of empiricism
A method that consists of targeted perception, recording the behavior and properties of the subject of research. This is not just thoughtful contemplation or a pleasant pastime.
Here is a grandmother sitting on a bench at the entrance, remembering everyone who comes in and out. From a scientific point of view, she is not an observer. There are strict requirements for this process:
- Focus and selectivity . The researcher carries out observations not at all out of boredom, but to achieve a specific goal - testing or refuting a hypothesis, collecting information. If our grandmother selectively counts how many mustachioed men enter the entrance, then the requirement will be met.
- Recording the results of observation . You need to keep an observation log and write down everything you find out.
- Systematicity . Data must be organized and recorded in a specific language - formal or natural. Here the grandmother researcher takes a thick notebook and writes: “January 10, 2019, 09:15 - a man of average build passed by, his mustache is 5 centimeters long.”
Observation includes:
- object – what we are looking at;
- subject – the researcher himself;
- technical means - with what we look (eyes, binoculars, telescope).
Observation can be direct or indirect . With direct observation, we study the object itself, and with indirect observation, we study the effects of its existence.
Some objects cannot be explored because they are too small or too far away. For example, elementary particles cannot be seen even with a powerful microscope. But when they move, they leave traces that can be recorded.
There are also two methods of observation - direct and instrumental . Direct observation is carried out using the senses - eyes, ears, hands, and instrumental observation - using technical means - telescopes, sensors, microscopes.
If you want to learn more about experiential knowledge, watch this video:
Scientific observation
This does not mean simple passive contemplation of the world. Scientific observation is a special type of activity that involves the presence of a knowledgeable person, usually a scientist, an object and means. The latter include devices and material media for transmitting information. An important feature of scientific observation is the purposeful nature of its implementation. This is due to the fact that there are preliminary ideas and hypotheses that form the final task. This is an important difference from ordinary contemplation. Observation and empirical description are closely related areas that ultimately consolidate and convey results through symbolic means. Then further processing is carried out, which includes classification, systematization and generalization.
Measurement is another empirical level of knowledge
This is an empirical research method that allows you to find out the exact quantitative characteristics of the object being studied.
There is a globe, it is huge. “Huge” is a qualitative characteristic that does not provide any useful information. But “the diameter of the globe is 12.7 thousand kilometers” is a quantitative parameter that is important for science.
To carry out the measurement we will need :
- magnitude - what we will measure;
- the subject is the researcher himself with a ruler in his hands;
- methodology - scale and technical means that we will use.
Measurements can be direct or indirect . With direct measurements, the result is determined directly - apply a compass and find out the radius. With indirect measurements, the result is obtained by calculating the desired value.
To find out the area of a square, measure any side of it with a ruler and multiply this value by itself.
Distinctive features of empirical methods in pedagogy
If we are talking about a specific science, in this case pedagogy, then there are more types of empirical methods here than in others.
Of course, the main ones are repeated, however, they have a number of distinctive features, which will be discussed below.
The object of observation in pedagogy can be both a group and one of its representatives
The first type of empirical method is observation.
Due to the fact that our objects are people, the researcher will be able to observe them in two different ways: being included in the group or not being included.
In addition, he can do this openly or secretly, choose as an object one representative of the group or all its members.
Experiment is empirical knowledge of the highest form
This is a research method in which there is a controlled, targeted influence on the subject being studied . Experimentation arises from an unwillingness to wait.
A scientist wants to know what will happen if one throws one stone onto another from a great height. He would have to spend years waiting for the right event to occur. A true scientist will not waste time. He will rise to a hill and throw the stone down. This will be an experiment.
An experiment is considered reliable if, when repeated many times, it gives the same results.
So we tossed a coin and it came up heads. If you limit yourself to one single experiment, you can draw the wrong conclusion - the coin always lands heads up. But after conducting hundreds of such experiments, we will come to the correct conclusion: the distribution between heads and tails corresponds to probability theory - 50/50.
An experiment is a powerful, fast, effective empirical method of knowledge. It is characterized by a lack of pity for the object of research, which in the process can be changed beyond recognition or even destroyed .
In this regard, observation is a more passive and humane way of research.
Experiments are classified according to the objects being studied: chemical, physical, social, economic. But they can also be divided according to goals and objectives:
- research – to form new hypotheses, make guesses;
- testing – to confirm or refute existing hypotheses and theories;
- decisive - from two contradictory theories, based on the results of the experiment, the only correct one is selected.
Types of description
There are only two of them:
- High quality.
- Quantitative.
Qualitative description is an empirical method that does not use numbers to clarify data. As an example, the following definition can be given: an apple is green. Quantitative description involves carrying out activities using the language of mathematics. It is also assumed that various measurement procedures will be carried out. In a narrow sense, a quantitative description implies only recording the data obtained. With more careful work, empirical dependencies between the results obtained are also discovered.
Description is a recording of the results of an experiment or observation.
The description is carried out using natural language - such as this article is written in - or a formalized artificial language. In this case, graphs, diagrams, images, tables, diagrams are used.
The problem with this method is its subjectivity. The same object can be described in completely different ways.
Let's take an ordinary cat. A cat lover will talk about him in bright colors, admiring his color, character, and habits. But for an allergy sufferer, the description of the same animal will be different - a real fiend of hell.
To avoid ambiguity and inaccuracy, use the following techniques :
- standardization (what is this?) of the structure of presentation of the material;
- definition of the terms used and their meanings;
- setting criteria for applying certain assessments;
- transition from natural language to formalized form;
- comparison of information from different sources.
Description is a method that is closely related to other methods of empirical research. You can’t say that he is somehow better or worse than others. All together is a single cycle.
The results obtained during observation or experiment need to be recorded and correctly presented. Then it's time for description.
Comparison
It lies at the heart of the measurement operation. Thanks to comparison, similar properties or aspects of objects are found.
For convenience, certain units of measurement are used, which make it possible to express characteristics from a quantitative approach. This entails the widespread use of mathematical tools. In a number of areas of science one can encounter comparative methods (linguistics, biology, etc.). When it comes to the concept of empirical methods, description is equally necessary for observation and comparison in order to closely relate to the experiment being conducted. For the greatest completeness of knowledge, it is desirable to intervene in the processes that occur. This may also be done to obtain specific information. For qualitative comparison, research conditions can be created and controlled. This has a positive effect when it is necessary to check data multiple times.
Soul and experiment
Empiricism also greatly influenced psychology. Moreover, the title of Wolf’s book “Empirical Psychology” served as an impetus for the widespread use of the term “psychology” in European science. However, this was 1732, Wolf proposed studying the actual manifestations of the soul, and not detached questions about its existence, but there were still very few experiments at that time. He was a follower of Leibniz and established parallels between the psyche and physical events.
Almost 150 years later, in 1879, Wundt created experimental psychology by opening the first laboratory. Psychology for him is the science of direct experience. The experiments of this great man begin a thorny but most interesting path to the study of the psyche. Laboratories, recording observations, experiments, studying sensations, perceptions, attention, feelings, etc. - all this remains important today, although the methods of conducting tests and experiments have changed.
Recommended: What is experience?
A little later, psychoanalysis appears, which Popper criticized for its unfalsifiability. An important condition, which has already been mentioned, for the recognition of a theory - falsifiability - is apparently impossible to fulfill in psychoanalysis.
Many other approaches were born in the Old and New Worlds. Gestalt psychologists conducted experiments on attention, memory and perception, and studied insights. Pavlov discovered the principles of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, and behaviorists used them to justify the principles of learning.
Psychology successfully implements the principles of the empirical method and is not going to abandon them, although at the time of its inception it often retreated into mysticism and ephemerality. Now this is a serious science, which, armed with neurobiology, the latest equipment for studying the brain and programs for analyzing observations obtained during the experiment, is gaining authority among the exact and natural sciences. Author: Ekaterina Volkova
Description of facts
This is an important stage for the development of scientific knowledge. The description of facts is carried out for the purpose of their subsequent study and research, as well as the formulation of conclusions. Therefore, this task is more than responsible. And not least because the researcher faces the danger of subjectivity and one-sided consideration of findings. To understand the importance, let's answer these questions: what does it mean to describe a fact and how should this process be carried out? When a researcher describes a fact, this means that he answers the question of what it is, determines the properties inherent in it. By classifying information, they form a certain gradation. Thanks to a number of features, various forms and means of empirical knowledge are distinguished. At the same time, the researcher is entrusted with the task of understanding all the nuances and aspects with which he is dealing. This can be hindered by the fact that a person works alone. Therefore, in order to increase efficiency and obtain better results, they are united into research groups. Of course, this is not a guarantee that all facts will be described as well as possible. But at the same time, this indicates an improvement in the quality of work and a more effective consideration of the fact under study as a whole.
