Yuri Arshavsky, Doctor of Biological Sciences, University of California (San Diego, USA)
"Nature" No. 9, 2020
In blessed memory of the wonderful scientist and person V.P. Efroimson
Vladimir Pavlovich Efroimson (1908–1989)
People have always been interested in human nature. Among other things, a special place is occupied by the question of the origin of representatives of the biological species Homo sapiens
two opposite principles - altruistic and egoistic. The terms “altruism” and “egoism” are very multifaceted. In this case, I propose to conditionally interpret them as a tendency to manifest good and evil inherent in the human genome. Most people tend to do good deeds, i.e. to one degree or another provide selfless assistance to their fellow humans. By this I mean not only financial assistance, but also the willingness to risk one’s health and even life to save another, sometimes a stranger, especially when it comes to a child. At the same time, people are characterized by excessive selfishness, which manifests itself in aggressiveness, excessive greed, lust for power and often pushes them to extremely cruel acts.
Just as people differ in character and in the degree of talent (ability for languages, music, mathematics, etc.), they also differ in the expression of altruistic and egoistic principles. People with a pronounced tendency towards altruism are popularly called saints or righteous people; some of them went down in the history of human civilization forever. On the contrary, people endowed with boundless egoism often become criminals and murderers. If this kind of person is vested with absolute power, the number of his victims can be measured in many thousands and even millions. History knows many examples of the atrocities of tyrants from antiquity to the present day.
The study of identical and fraternal twins has shown that a person’s abilities and his characterological characteristics are largely determined by his genome and to a much lesser extent by upbringing and education [1–3]. Speaking about the role of genetic and environmental factors in determining human behavior, I must make one reservation. External factors that an organism normally encounters in the early stages of development can have a radical impact on all subsequent behavior of the organism, since they are necessary for the activation of the corresponding genes. Two examples to illustrate what has been said. Experiments on rats have shown that maternal affection (washing, licking, etc.) during a certain critical period (the first week after birth) is necessary for the formation of normal behavior in stressful situations. The effect of maternal affection is due to the activation of genes involved in the formation of neurohumoral mechanisms involved in reactions to stressful stimuli []. Another example is the existence of a critical period for language acquisition. Children who were isolated from the language environment until the age of 9–10 (the so-called “wolf children” or deaf children born of normal parents) lose the ability to learn language - regular or sign language. It can be assumed that the language environment plays a dual role. It not only allows the child to learn words and phrases of his native language, but also leads to the activation of genes that determine a person’s ability to communicate linguistically []. However, environmental effects associated with the activation of genetic programs are not the effects that are meant when talking about the role of genetic and environmental factors in determining human behavior.
How to explain the fact that in a person (both the biological species as a whole and in each individual) such opposite principles as altruism and selfishness coexist? There are two main answers to this question. According to religious views, the source of altruism is the divine origin of man. Difficulties arise with egoism, to explain which the existence of not only God, but also the devil is assumed. Science, on the contrary, easily explains human selfishness by its origin from animals, for which selfishness is the most important factor contributing to survival in the struggle for existence. It is much more difficult to find an explanation for the biological sources of altruism. The outstanding Russian geneticist V.P. Efroimson, in his book “Genetics of Ethics and Aesthetics,” proposed a paradoxical hypothesis: altruism is an adaptive factor that played an important role in the process of human evolution. Efroimson wrote that kindness and a chivalrous attitude towards women, the elderly, and children are those properties that inevitably developed under the influence of a special form of natural selection (group natural selection) as the ancestral man evolved into modern man. Meanwhile, another prominent biologist L.M. Chailakhyan argued the opposite: only one element of human society does not follow from natural selection - these are the moral principles of human behavior. (I note that despite all the scientific differences between these authors, they are united by a clearly expressed humanistic approach to the problem under consideration.) I think that the recently published results of paleoanthropological research not only support, but also deepen Efroimson’s point of view. Before moving on to describe these results, let me recall the main arguments he gives to substantiate the hypothesis about the adaptive role of altruism***.
Altruism concept
Altruism is human behavior that involves selflessly helping others, sometimes to the detriment of one’s own interests. A synonym for this word is “dedication.” An altruist refuses possible benefits and benefits in favor of another person or society as a whole. At the same time, he does not expect gratitude or reward from the person to whom he helped.
It is necessary to distinguish true altruism from imaginary. For example, a woman lives with her alcoholic husband, takes care of him and hopes that he will improve. At the same time, she completely forgets about herself, turning a blind eye to the fact that her husband is taking the last money out of the house. It would seem that such a woman’s behavior can be called altruistic. However, in fact, there are reasons why she tolerates her husband's antics. Perhaps the woman is afraid of being lonely and unwanted, and is afraid of difficulties when parting with her husband. Accordingly, there is still a benefit in her behavior.
True altruism involves heroic deeds in war, helping a drowning person provided by a person who himself can barely swim, the actions of firefighters pulling children out of fire. In these cases, it is completely impossible to trace any benefit in people’s behavior.
Reasons for altruistic behavior
There are several theories that explain human altruistic behavior. First of all, these include the social responsibility of people and their need to give. According to this, a person strives to help his neighbor if he sees that he needs him and depends on his actions.
Altruistic behavior can be explained by a reluctance to observe the suffering of others. Moreover, if they stop, the negative emotions of the person who provided help disappear, or they are replaced by positive ones. From the point of view of this theory, altruism and egoism are closely intertwined.
Another reason for selflessness may be a person’s feeling of guilt. By performing a noble deed, he strives to atone for his sins.
How does an altruist differ from a philanthropist?
Despite the similarity of concepts, there is a difference between the concepts of altruist and philanthropist.
A philanthropist, unlike an altruist, donates money to good causes, but does not necessarily carry them out himself. In addition, his actions are not necessarily selfless and may have some selfish reasons. Often philanthropists want to achieve something by giving money to charitable causes. Sometimes this is necessary in order to achieve a certain status, to see respect from other people, in order to cover up one’s true goals with charity, which may not be entirely honest and legal.
Philanthropy as a phenomenon is very similar to altruism. However, philanthropy is a specific type of activity. Examples of philanthropists in Russia are Konstantin Khabensky and Chulpan Khamatova, who help sick children by creating special charitable foundations.
Moral altruism
Moral altruism is helping other people, which is based on a person’s conscience and moral principles. In this case, the individual acts based on his internal beliefs and concepts about how to act correctly in a given situation. Living according to conscience, a person becomes honest with himself and does not experience feelings of guilt or mental anguish.
One form of moral altruism is normative. It is expressed in a person’s struggle for justice, the desire to punish the guilty and defend the truth. For example, a judge gives a harsh sentence to a criminal, despite the very large sum offered to him as a bribe.
How to raise an altruistic child
In any situation, children follow the example of their parents, so if you dream of your child becoming an altruist when he grows up, you should set the right example for him. Every action of the parents will be assessed by the child in such a way that it needs to be repeated. Therefore, you should show your child that you help people. Teach that you need to do good and not refuse help if you are asked for it. Observing altruistic parents in front of them, children will definitely want to be the same.
It is important to show your child your own example.
Rational altruism
Rational altruism is a person’s attempt to find the right balance between his interests and the needs and needs of others. It presupposes a person’s meaningful performance of selfless actions and their preliminary consideration.
The rational theory of altruism allows an individual to protect himself from those who would take advantage of his honesty and kindness. That is why it is based on reciprocity of efforts. Without this, the relationship can become exploitative. A person needs to understand where and when to offer his help, and try not to act to the detriment of himself and his interests.
The most common theories
Among the most common scientific theories that try to explain the reasons that motivate a person to perform selfless acts are the following :
- evolutionary;
- public exchange;
- social norms.
Let's briefly consider each of these areas.
Evolutionary or biological theory
Living beings often do things that put themselves in danger, but this is what contributes to the survival of the species as a whole. Thus, altruism can be considered as one of the mechanisms for preserving the genotype.
The following question naturally arises: how can selfless sacrifice and natural selection, which is an extremely selfish process, exist simultaneously in nature?
Scientists R. Fisher, D. Haldane and W. Hamilton played a huge role in solving this puzzle, who created the theory of kin selection. In order to understand its essence, it is necessary to understand that at the gene level there is no talk of any altruism. Any appearance of a “good” or “sacrificial” gene in the process of evolution will lead to the fact that it will be supplanted by less “compassionate” colleagues and simply disappear.
At the same time, variations of the same gene (alleles) are present in many organisms. From the point of view of natural selection, it is completely indifferent which of them will continue to reproduce and which will die; only the result is important, that is, the general increase in population size. Therefore, sometimes it is beneficial for a gene to sacrifice some of its copies so that others, contained in other organisms, receive certain advantages. In other words, in order to preserve the gene pool as a whole, individual organisms have to be sacrificed.
Natural selection will allow a “good” gene to spread through a population only if the reproductive advantage obtained as a result of the altruistic act performed exceeds the damage caused to the “sacrifice.” This pattern in biology is called Hamilton's rule.
It should be noted that the above theses of evolutionary theory are presented in a very simplified form. To better understand the essence of the issue, we will give an example taken from the book of the Russian biologist A. Markov “Human Evolution. Monkeys, neurons and the soul."
So, imagine the sea, a fisherman, a soaring seagull. Having cut up part of the catch, the man threw the herring giblets into the sea. Noticing this, the seagull emits several calling cries, flies up and pounces on the food. At her call, other birds fly in and are also not averse to dinner. They begin to take food, literally snatching pieces of fish from the beak of a relative who kindly invited them. The seagull begins to actively resist. A real battle is taking place! The question arises: why did the seagull call other birds, since there is no benefit for it in this action? And if she already called, then why doesn’t she voluntarily share, but tries in every possible way to keep the food for herself?
It's all about a bizarre combination of altruistic and selfish behavior. Since in nature gulls feed on schooling fish, next to one herring noticed by a bird, in most cases, there are others. This means there should be enough food for everyone. Thus, the damage suffered by the seagull itself as a result of an altruistic act will be minimal, and the benefit for other birds will be very noticeable. Everyone will remain well-fed, satisfied and leave numerous offspring. That is why, in accordance with Hamilton’s rule, as a result of natural selection, the “calling cry” was established in seagulls.
But in this case, the man threw only the offal of one fish into the sea. Having given away the prey, the seagull will remain hungry. And this amount of food is clearly not enough for all the arriving birds. It turns out that the seagull itself will remain a loser, and the benefits that others will receive will be insignificant. This means that a “good” gene that accidentally appeared, forcing a bird to share prey to its own detriment, will not gain a foothold in the process of evolution and will disappear.
In order to figure out in what situations it is worth shouting and calling others for a meal, and when it is better to eat everything alone, you need a developed consciousness, which, for certain reasons, the seagull does not possess.
Thus, in biology, altruism is viewed as behavior that promotes the preservation of the genotype and reproductive success of other organisms, even to the detriment of oneself.
Public (social) exchange
This theory is based on the belief that altruism is a deep (hidden) manifestation of egoism . Before interacting with another person, providing him with help or support, each individual mentally calculates his own benefit from such actions. At the same time, everyone wants to receive the maximum reward while expending minimal effort.
The famous sociologist D. Myers gave an example of reflections preceding a person’s committing an altruistic act. Before responding to a call to donate blood for a fellow student, students assessed the negative and positive consequences of their decision.
Their reasoning was structured approximately according to the following scheme: “If I agree, then I will have to waste my free time. It might hurt me. But on the other hand, I will do a good deed, get a free breakfast and look good in the eyes of my friends. And if I refuse, I will feel guilty, and others will not understand and will judge. But then I don’t have to give up my pleasant plans for the evening.”
So, from the standpoint of the theory under consideration, a person commits an altruistic act when he expects to receive some kind of bonus in return. The reward for selflessness can be:
- external (respect, image improvement);
- internal (self-confidence, increased self-esteem).
The idea of the egoistic component of altruism was developed in the works of M. Schaller and R. Cialdini. These sociologists see the reason for helping strangers in trouble in a person’s desire to get rid of the discomfort caused by forced observation of other people’s suffering.
Scientists recognize that in relation to their family and friends, a person is more often inclined to show true altruism. Examples from life confirm this. So, a guy will be more willing to come to the aid of his beloved girl, rather than a random passerby. But it is altruism, which is based on empathy, that, according to many researchers, poses a danger to public morality, since it encourages one to care for one another and leaves one indifferent to the suffering of other people.
Social norms theory
Often people support each other not because they expect to receive benefits or encouragement, but because of a sense of duty and responsibility. Having seen a first-grader on the street who does not dare to cross the road near the school, most adults will help him simply because this is what is necessary and should be done in the current situation. It is in the theory of social norms that the meaning of the word “altruist” acquires a connotation of morality and ethics.
There are two social norms that determine the reasons for selfless behavior:
- The norm of reciprocity. E. Gouldner believed that a person should help those who support him. In other words, goodness must be responded to only with goodness. The sociologist called this rule a real code of honor, the only and universal one. This is why people find it difficult to ask for help if they have nothing to offer in return.
- Standard of responsibility. Extends its effect to those who, due to objective reasons, cannot be equal participants in social relations (children, the elderly, people with disabilities). Obliges members of society to help those in need without expecting any reward for their actions.
Altruism from sympathy and empathy
Altruistic actions are very often performed by a person who is driven by certain experiences and feelings. It could be mercy, compassion or empathy. As a rule, the goodwill and dedication of altruists extends only to close people - relatives, friends, loved ones. If altruism goes beyond such relationships, it is called “philanthropy.” Most often it manifests itself in charity and helping those in need.
Characteristics of an altruist
Among the main personal qualities of an altruistic person are:
- Sincere goodwill towards people;
- Mercy;
- Willingness to sacrifice oneself for the sake of others;
- Openness towards other people;
- Humanism;
- Courage in the face of any danger.
Altruism applies to everything, including animals
Selfishness concept
The concept opposite to altruism is egoism. It represents the behavior of an individual aimed solely at satisfying his interests and needs, obtaining benefits and benefits for himself. The consequences that such actions can lead to for other people are not taken into account by the egoist.
There is an opinion that every person is genetically predisposed to selfishness. This is explained by the long struggle for survival and natural selection in conditions in which people had to exist for a long time. Some scientists believe that all human actions are driven by selfishness. Even the best intentions and selfless actions actually have a hidden purpose to satisfy the needs of the person himself, and not those of others.
There are rational and irrational egoism. In the first case, a person evaluates and weighs the consequences of his actions. As a result, he acts as he thinks is right and appropriate. Irrational egoism involves rash and impulsive actions that can lead to unpleasant consequences for others.
Altruism and egoism
It would seem that such opposite concepts cannot be combined in one person and have nothing in common. Traditionally, we are accustomed to considering selfishness as a negative personality trait. People who possess it cause condemnation and censure from society. Altruism, on the contrary, implies a positive assessment. People have always revered selflessness and heroic deeds.
In fact, one cannot separate such concepts as altruism and egoism. 4th grade at school is the time to learn about the meaning of these words and the fact that they are perfectly combined in one person and complement each other. Both altruism and rational egoism are based on morality and morality. The value of human life is immeasurably great, both that of others and your own. Therefore, if an individual strives for personal gain and the fulfillment of his needs, this cannot be considered evil, of course, provided that other people do not suffer from this.
We must also remember that a person can change depending on what life lesson he receives. Selfishness and altruism can alternate in people. For example, if a person who has committed a noble deed receives condemnation instead of gratitude, or if his physical and moral capabilities to perform good deeds have dried up, then he can turn into an egoist. Caring for one's own person can also be replaced by altruism if suitable conditions are created for this.
The problem in modern society is the condemnation of both selfless behavior and selfishness. In the first case, people are often considered abnormal or do not believe them and look for hidden benefits in their actions. Selfishness is associated with greed and a disregard for others.
Pros and cons of altruism
The positive aspects of selflessness are obvious to every person. Altruism is, first of all, helping people. If you managed to save your neighbor or provide him with support at the right time, this certainly deserves praise and approval. By performing selfless acts, helping others, each person makes our world a little kinder and more humane.
Are there any downsides to altruism? Within reasonable limits they are absent. However, if a person completely forgets about himself and his interests, this can cause significant harm to himself. Very often those around them begin to take advantage of a person’s kindness and kindness, shift their responsibilities to him, constantly ask him to borrow money and do not give it back. They know that they will never be refused and will always be helped, even if it is not so necessary. As a result, the altruist may be left with nothing, without receiving any gratitude for his good deeds.
How to become an altruist
Some people, realizing that selfish standards do not suit them or no longer bring joy, want to change their lives and become altruists. There are a lot of positive aspects to this type of outlook, so it can be helpful to start helping people. To become an altruist, you can do the following:
- Take part in charity of various sizes and directions. For example, help a specific needy person with money or become a donor. It is possible to start regularly donating funds to charities.
- Start helping your loved ones and relatives. It is enough just to start helping and behaving kindly with your family. For example, putting aside your own work to spend the evening helping your parents is the first step towards altruism.
- Start helping those people who need support. For example, give advice to a friend or make a report together with your colleague.
- Give gifts to your loved ones for no reason.
- Try to behave tactfully and politely with your surroundings. For example, start giving up your seat on public transport or giving up the queue to an elderly person. These little things add up to altruism.
However, such a desire to “become an altruist” cannot be called full-fledged altruism. By setting yourself the task of stopping being selfish, you close your gestalt through altruistic actions. But they are not caused by your heartfelt desire to help someone, you do this to achieve or work through your problems and issues.
