Laws of perception in psychology. Basic types and properties of perception

The article describes in accessible language the basic laws and stages of the perception process that everyone needs to know.

We perceive the world through our sensations. When any objects impact our sense organs, temporary nerve connections are formed in the cerebral cortex, conditionally reflex processes; stimuli are analyzed and synthesized. Perception is a mental process of searching for signs on the basis of which an image can be formed and comprehended. At the same time, our sensations are selected, systematized and interpreted in some way.

As a result of perception, we receive an image. One of the analyzers plays a leading role in this process and determines important features, and on their basis – the properties of the perceived object. Based on the analyzers that take part in the process of perception, visual, tactile, auditory, muscular and other perceptions are distinguished.

In humans, as a rule, the leading sense organ is vision, and therefore the properties of perception were studied primarily on this basis. Investigating what and how influences the formation of visual images, representatives of Gestalt psychology (early 19th century, Germany) derived the laws of visual perception (according to M. Wertheimer):

If the figures are similar, that is, if they are united by some common characteristics (for example, shape), then, based on the similarity, our perception combines them into groups.
If the figures are located close to each other, our perception tries to unite them.
If the figures have any similar changes, our perception also tries to unite and group them.
If the figures are in a confined space, they are perceived better and easier.
If there are several figures, they try to group them in such a way as to unite all without exception, so that not a single free-standing figure remains.

Science cannot yet explain the mechanism of the brain that forces us to adhere to these laws of visual perception. Therefore, the identified patterns are so far simply perceived as phenomenological.

The following observations should also be included in the laws of perception:

Whatever we perceive, the brain structures incoming signals, perceiving them as figure and ground. What is clear to us, clearly perceived, is the figure, and its surroundings are the background. When switching attention, the background and figure can change places (as in the picture of the Rubin vase). This selection of a “figure” from the “background” can concern not only vision, but also, for example, hearing (we “snatch” words of interest from a stream of noise: for example, our name), smell, etc.
No matter what we observe, the brain tries to “complete” the missing fragments into a whole figure, to show the integrity of the image. This applies not only to the image, melody, elements of phrases or words, this is also the law of human perception by man: we infer what we do not know based on what we see and hear.
But perception is influenced by our expectations, guesses, assumptions: what is presented to us, we perceive based on its environment, likening it to something similar. For example, as a manifestation of this law, when perceiving a person as a person, we attribute to people the traits that we expect to see in them.

In psychology, the following laws of perception are also distinguished:

Perception is associated with the work of muscles, with movements containing information about the objects that are perceived.
Already formed images are relatively stable, especially if associated with thinking.
A necessary condition for correct perception is the constant supply of new information that clarifies and corrects the emerging image.
In the process of development of perception, the formation of images depends on the experience gained, sensations, and when perception has already been formed, the nature of the images is partially determined by the internal processes occurring in the body.

Features of human development

Some laws of perception of the surrounding world have been established through simple experiments and observations. Thus, researchers compared passive children and active children under certain conditions. One of these experiments was observing people who found themselves in an inverted space.

The laws of perception apply to everyone without exception. Proof of this is the experience with glasses that display the world around us upside down. A person wearing such optics will adapt to changing conditions.

The brain begins to identify objects and make analogies taken from accumulated experience. Literally a month later the person feels comfortable in the new conditions and lives a normal life. But as soon as he takes off his optics, he again gets lost in space for some time.

It’s easy to notice the laws of perception when you drive off the highway into city streets after a long trip at high speed. Everything seems so slow that it feels like you're walking. To restore the feeling of speed, it is enough to stop for just an hour or two. The example with optics requires more time to adapt to changing conditions.

Why is this happening?

Correct perception of space directly depends on the movements of parts of the human body. The important role is played not by the movement itself from point A to B, but by the process in which muscle work is involved. Adaptation to changing conditions occurs only through motor skills and the performance of repeated manipulations.

Children learn about the world around them through constant play. Adults are more adapted to learning, learning something new while moving. This is the peculiarity of perception, which is proven by the simplest experience:

One of the adults was given optics that reversed the image of the surrounding space, and forced him to immediately move and try to perform daily functions. At first he was confused, but he quickly adjusted himself and began to perceive the world as usual.
Another adult was forced to be passive and sit in a chair without making any movements at all. He was also given similar optics. Even after a long time, he was still unable to adapt to the changed conditions.

Conclusions from experience

Correct perception of space directly depends on the physical activity of the individual. There is something called muscle memory, although its involvement cannot be proven by tangible facts. When moving, the organs of hearing, vision, and touch work more actively.

This is how the internal processes of forming the abilities to perceive and understand beauty are more intense. Movement is necessary for proper human development. According to most scientists, adequate images are formed only under such conditions.

Movements can also be internal; it is important that they be muscular. Even visual perception occurs due to the chaotic movement of the pupil of the eye. When its position is static, the object becomes blurred. This may be due to the adaptation of cones and rods.

It has been proven that such perception is unnatural; it occurs when inhibition of all body systems is observed. The image of the object seems to disappear from the person’s field of vision.

Types and properties of perception

In psychology, there are several classifications of types of perception.

By modality:

visual,
auditory,
tactile,
taste,
olfactory.

By object of perception:

perception of space (including size, shape, location, relief, distance, direction);
perception of time (including duration and sequence of events);
perception of movement (including direction and speed, position in space).

By purpose:

arbitrary (perception is subject to the goals and objectives that the person himself has established);
involuntary (something involuntarily attracts a person’s attention and is perceived by him).

By compatibility with other psychological structures:

emotional (combined with emotions and feelings);
rational (combined with thinking).

Often different types of perception are combined with each other and included in the work simultaneously.

Perceptual properties:

objectivity (the ability to reflect objects separately, and not as a general “mess”);
integrity (the ability to build a generalized image of an object, taking into account all its properties and qualities);
structurality (generalized perception of the structure of images, and not a projection of instant sensations, elements);
constancy (the ability to maintain consistency in the perception of the properties of objects, regardless of their position, for example, a truck will be perceived as a large car even at a great distance);
meaningfulness (the perception of perceptual images is always associated with an intellectual process);
activity (at a time we can perceive only one object or one group of objects - others become the background).

Psychophysiological characteristics of a person

The well-known domestic scientist Sechenov has proven a direct relationship between movement, physical and psychological development. He showed that such a perception of the surrounding world is optimal. When moving, the parameters of objects are adequately perceived:

Dimensions: length, height, depth.
Proportions relative to other objects.
Distance to object.
The speed of his movement and his movement.

It is impossible to imagine a static person who really perceives the state of the world around him. We can often hear the expression: as long as I move, I live. It appeared long before the creation of teachings about psychology.

This is the peculiarity of human perception of surrounding objects. However, movement also affects the understanding of the essence of the concept of “time”. The ability to adequately assess the parameters of objects is not enough. To exist in this world, it is important to navigate in time.

Thinking and perception can be fractional - the periodic activity of the body gives rise to the concept of time. Intervals of movements help a person to speed up or slow down, which additionally helps to understand the essence of the true things of the universe.

His worldview depends on the dynamics of the surrounding space and the person himself. Each object of its kind is felt by the eye. When a new object appears, the pupil begins to change its position thanks to the muscles. What is seen is compared with the base in memory, the distance is estimated, and attempts are made to estimate the speed of movement of the object itself.

The organs of perception receive information from the muscles in the process of examining the surrounding space. The pupil, ears, receptors of the nose, and nerve endings of the skin of the hands are involved in direct contact with objects. Movement belongs to the first condition of perception.

Color perception

Today, psychologists distinguish two main levels: the sensation of color and its perception. But there is another level - “sense of color” - and it is important and specific in artistic creativity. If the sensation of color is determined by the physiology of vision and is considered the simplest mental act, then perception is a more complex process, associated with certain psychological laws. But the sense of color is more related to the aesthetic and emotional spheres.

There are some laws of human perception of color. They are caused by the peculiarities of our visual organ’s perception of color under different conditions. When perceiving color, lighting and adaptation, brightness and induction play a role. The subtleties of the nature of color, combinations and characteristics of colors, the laws of human perception of color are the subject of the study of coloristics. But we will dwell on some points in more detail.

Interestingly, colors located next to each other influence each other. Moreover, colors are always perceived depending on the environment. Thus, squares of the same size but different colors are perceived differently: white on a black background seems larger than black on a white background. An orange square in a red frame becomes yellow, and on a yellow background it turns red. A gray square on an orange background turns blue, and on a blue one it takes on an orange tint.

Color has always had a strong influence on a person, affecting his psychological state and physiological processes. We are influenced by the saturation or pallor of a color, its shades, its combination with other colors. Bright colors have the power to attract attention much faster than pale ones. Light colors are more pleasing to the eye than dark ones. Knowing the features and laws of human perception of color, you can use this knowledge in everyday life, for advertising purposes, you can evoke certain emotions, create a certain mood, form associations and images.

Psychologists, based on a person’s color preferences, can analyze his psychophysiological state (Luscher test).

Each color has its own effect on the human psyche and evokes different associations. Let's consider some patterns - general, important both in design and in life, laws of color perception, identified by psychologists.

Red is the color of passion, energy, pressure, intensity, fire, strength. It excites the nervous system, improves mood, and stimulates brain function. With prolonged exposure it can irritate, even increase blood pressure and increase stress.

Orange is a sunny, joyful color, cheerful and dynamic, it is associated with friendship, openness, stimulates, invigorates, sharpens perception, and promotes problem solving. It gives a feeling of happiness and well-being, speeds up the heart rate without increasing blood pressure. This color is cheerfulness and improvisation. But you need to take a break from it: it can tire you. It is the color of energy, balance, enthusiasm. But sometimes it can be perceived as the color of ignorance and lies.

Yellow is the color of joy, fun, it attracts attention and improves mental activity. Yellow color helps solve problems and problems, stimulates the brain, promotes learning, promotes clarity and accuracy of thought. Those who prefer this color are distinguished by their desire for independence and expansion of their horizons of perception. But it can cause laziness and even envy. This is the color of summer, gold, sunshine, idealism, joy, but also risk, deception, greed, illness.

Green is the color of calm, freshness, relaxes and calms the nervous system. This is the color of balance. The color green is believed to soothe pain and reduce fatigue. This is a "quiet" color. As a rule, it is liked by balanced and calm people who are prone to self-affirmation. This is the color of spring, nature, vigor, youth, restoration, as well as inexperience, envy, failure. Some people associate it with money (dollars), even with greed.

Blue and dark blue - these colors reflect peace, tranquility, trust, conservatism, and create a “cool” background. It is believed that these colors help relieve neurological pain, reduce anxiety, and lower blood pressure. But with prolonged exposure, they cause fatigue and fatigue. Blue is considered the color of trust, self-confidence, calmness, reliability, but can be perceived as cold.

Purple is the color of mystery, it is mystical, it has some magic. It is the color of knowledge and wealth, but can cause sadness. This color is preferred by people with unstable character; it is called “the color of female loneliness.” Purple color affects the heart, blood vessels, and psyche.

Black is the color of mystery and depth, power and dignity. Well, at the same time, it can provoke fear and anxiety.

White is the color of light and perfection, purity, simplicity, but at the same time it is the color of cold, and sometimes emptiness.

Briefly, we can characterize the primary colors as follows: stimulating colors include red, orange and yellow, depressing colors include purple, dark gray background and black background, and calming colors include green and blue colors.

Color researcher, Swiss artist I. Itten, created a model of a 12-frequency circle, and on its basis described seven types of color contrasts, illustrating how with the help of other contrasting colors you can enhance or weaken the impression of a particular color.

Based on sociological research, colors can be arranged from most to least preferred, thus: blue - purple - white - pink - purple - red - green - yellow - orange - brown - black.

A person’s perception develops constantly, under the influence of the conditions of his life.

Attention, memory, thinking and perception can be developed daily, in a fun way, using online brain and memory training exercises.

We wish you success in self-development!

Memory

The perception of objects is accompanied by the recording of stable images in memory, which persist for a long time under suddenly changed conditions in space. So, in the above example, when a person puts on glasses that turn the picture upside down, a disturbance in perception occurs. The real situation does not correspond to what is already familiar and it is necessary to rewrite the existing database.

The second law of perception can be attributed to memory: images of the surrounding reality are retained for a long time, thinking reinforces them. Experience with glasses is proof: if an ordinary person puts them on, he can get lost. The same thing happens if you take them off after wearing them for a long time: the memory has already overwritten the familiar images and again there is discomfort and disorientation.

As a result, we can draw conclusions: perception and understanding directly depend on a person’s accumulated experience in the process of learning about the world around him. The memory of images, even after rewriting in a new environment, distorts the real parameters of objects. The brain is always looking for a match between the appearance of a new object and the appearance of previously encountered images.

When the situation is familiar, thinking regarding this issue is partially switched off, and the person already intuitively perceives the surrounding reality. This explains the disappearance of discomfort in new conditions. The speed of adaptation is different for everyone; this period is significantly reduced due to “muscle memory”.

The younger generation adapts to changing conditions faster because its representatives are constantly on the move. It is worth noting: if older people exercised daily or at least avoided static states, they would easily rewrite their memory area. This refers to the one that is responsible for the perception of the surrounding space.

It’s enough just to walk around the room, and the process of getting used to the glasses will be much more effective than for those who sit in a chair and look at the world only by turning their heads. The speed of adaptation increases when the organs of hearing and touch are involved. When feeling surrounding objects, objects are recognized faster.

Correct memory recording

Information about surrounding objects enters the central nervous system. For the correct formation of parameters and properties of objects, a constant and maximum influx of new information is required. This is possible only during the movement of the body or at least its parts.

Suitable conditions are created by exercises that are performed according to proven patterns. This is how we learn to walk and swim. As a result of repeated actions, new information is recorded and corrected when a discrepancy is detected.

An example of training is an experiment where any person is placed in a pool of water for a long time. The temperature of the new space is comfortable, but the test subject cannot feel it thanks to special equipment. The pads completely cover the skin and eliminate the possibility of touch. So a person cannot hear anything, his eyes are closed.

After some time, it is removed from the water and its condition is checked. The result of the experiment is:

violation of orientation in space;
the ability to perceive the passage of real time disappears;
the ability to normally capture the parameters of surrounding objects decreases;
the ability to correctly perceive tastes, sounds, colors is impaired;
Some people experienced hallucinations as a result of the disorder.

The results of the experiment allowed us to conclude: a person needs a constant supply of information about the surrounding space to correctly perceive it. Once you move to new conditions for a short time, the so-called destruction of existing superstructures occurs. Often in common people they are called habits.

Habits change thanks to a new flow of information about the world around us. The more powerful the flow, the faster a person relearns. In this case, the muscles become something like conductors with little resistance to information. They seem to strengthen the channels for its movement straight to the central nervous system.

Sensation and perception, their properties and laws

Sample questions for a test in psychology

Subject, methods and structure of psychology.

Evolution of the psyche. The difference between the human psyche and the animal psyche.

At the stage of elementary sensitivity, the animal reacts only to individual properties of objects in the external world. His behavior is determined by innate instincts (nutrition, self-preservation, reproduction, etc.). At the stage of objective perception, reflection of reality is carried out in the form of holistic images of objects and the animal is able to learn, individually acquired behavioral skills appear.

The intelligence of an animal is characterized by the ability to reflect interdisciplinary connections and the situation as a whole; as a result, the animal is able to bypass obstacles and “invent” new ways of solving two-phase problems that require preliminary preparatory actions. The intellectual behavior of animals does not go beyond the scope of biological needs and operates only within the limits of a visual situation.

The human psyche is a qualitatively higher level than the psyche of animals (homo sapiens - reasonable man). Human consciousness and intelligence developed in the process of labor activity, which arose due to the need to carry out joint actions to obtain food during a sharp change in the living conditions of primitive man. And although the specific biological and morphological characteristics of humans have been stable for several millennia, the development of the human psyche occurred in the process of labor activity. Thus, the material, spiritual culture of humanity is an objective form of embodiment of the achievements of the mental development of humanity.

In the process of historical development of society, a person changes the ways and techniques of his behavior. Natural inclinations and functions are transformed into higher (specifically human) mental functions - socially historically determined forms of memory, thinking, perception (logical memory, abstract logical thinking), mediated by the use of auxiliary means, speech signs created in the process of historical development. The unity of higher mental functions forms human consciousness.

The nature of consciousness. States of consciousness.

The definition of consciousness faces many difficulties associated with very different approaches to this problem. The problem of consciousness is one of the most difficult problems in psychology.

"Consciousness

“,” wrote V. Wundt, “
lies only in the fact that we generally find in ourselves any mental states
. From this point of view, consciousness psychologically represents a kind of inner glow, which can be bright or darkened, or even fades away completely, as, for example, during deep fainting (Ledd). Therefore, it can only have purely formal properties, which express the so-called psychological laws of consciousness - unity, continuity, narrowness, etc.

According to W. James, consciousness is the “master of mental functions”

, that is, in fact, consciousness is identified with the subject.

Consciousness is a special mental space, a “scene” (Jaspers). Consciousness can be a condition of psychology, but not its subject (Natorp).

A common feature of all the above views is an emphasis on the psychological lack of quality of consciousness.

L. S. Vygotsky writes that consciousness is the subject’s reflection of reality, his activities, and himself. “What is conscious is that which is transmitted as a stimulus to other reflex systems and evokes a response in them.” “Consciousness is, as it were, contact with oneself.”

Leontiev's views continue the system of views of L. S. Vygotsky. The scientist believes that consciousness in its immediacy is the picture of the world that is revealed to the subject, in which he himself and his actions and states are included.

Properties of consciousness (according to S. L. Rubinstein):

building relationships; cognition; experience.

Properties of consciousness as a functional organ:

reactivity; sensitivity; dialogism; polyphony; spontaneity of development; reflexivity.

Functions of consciousness:

reflective; generative (creative, or creative); regulatory-evaluative; reflective; spiritual.

Sensation and perception, their properties and laws.

Perception –

the process by which the brain organizes and processes sensory information.

Animal and neonatal studies have shown that many of the basic perceptual abilities are innate or developed during infancy. There is reason to assert that from the moment of birth, children have visual, auditory and other abilities in a rudimentary form.

For example, psychologists have found that six-month-old children are able to perceive depth. However, at an early stage of development there is still no perceptual experience, and the nervous system is immature, so the perception of external objects cannot be as stable and accurate as at a later age.

Further development of sensory abilities occurs through experience, in the process of interaction with the environment, primarily with the surrounding people.

Perception is influenced by a person's needs, beliefs, emotions and expectations. All this, in turn, is influenced by the cultural environment in which we develop and are brought up. Since a person, to a certain extent, constructs his own holistic perceptual world, we cannot always rely on our sensations.

Under strictly controlled laboratory conditions, it has been established that the simplest signals that influence the subconscious can, to a certain extent, influence perception. However, there is no evidence that commercially manufactured complex perceptual information influencing the subconscious and other methods affect the nature of our behavior.

Under extrasensory perception

understand paranormal abilities such as telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition and a sense of detachment. Research into these phenomena has been carried out for many years, but their results have not yet provided convincing evidence of the existence of extrasensory perception. Belief in its existence illustrates the main feature of perception: the reflection of the real picture of the world is influenced by our needs, preferences and beliefs.

Properties of perception

Perception, like any other mental phenomenon, can be considered both a process and a result.

Perception makes possible a holistic reflection of the world, the creation of an integral picture of reality, in contrast to sensations that reflect individual qualities of reality. Depending on the biological significance of the perceived object, either one or another quality may be leading, which determines which analyzer information will be considered a priority.

The result of perception is an integral, holistic image of the surrounding world, arising from the direct impact of the stimulus on the subject’s sense organs.

Perception has the following properties:

Constancy is the relative independence of an image from the conditions of perception, manifested in its vitality. Our perception, within certain limits, preserves objects’ size, shape, color, regardless of the conditions of perception (distance to the perceived object, lighting conditions, angle of perception, etc.).

Objectivity - an object is perceived by us as a separate physical body isolated in space and time. This property is most clearly manifested in the mutual isolation of figure and background.

Integrity is the internal organic relationship of parts and the whole in an image. Two aspects of this property should be considered: a) the unification of different elements as a whole; b) independence of the formed whole from the quality of its constituent elements.

The principles of the organization of perception (properties of objectivity and integrity) are most deeply and vividly described and analyzed by representatives of Gestalt psychology.

Generalization is the attribution of each image to a certain class of objects that has a name.

The meaningfulness of perception is based on the connection between perception and thinking, understanding the essence of the subject. The most important phenomenon of perception is the relation of an object image to the real world - the phenomenon of projection (for example, a person sees not an image of an object on the retina, but a real object in the real world). This phenomenon can be traced at all levels of personality organization.

Concept of sensation

Feeling –

recognition of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects. It occurs when energy from the external environment or body causes a reaction in the senses.

Sensation arises from sensory receptors that convert the physical energy of stimuli into electrical signals that are transmitted along nerves to the brain. Some sensations can be explained by anatomical codes (the doctrine of specific energies of the nervous system) and functional codes of the nervous system.

In psychophysics, sensory sensitivity is studied, the absolute threshold and the discrimination threshold are measured. However, signal detection theory states that threshold depends on both sensory and decision processes; it is also influenced by a person's motivations, activities and expectations.

Our senses react to changes and contrasts in the environment. When the stimulus remains unchanged, sensory adaptation occurs. Too little stimulation can cause sensory deprivation, and when there is too much stimulation, sensory overload occurs. For this reason, our attention is characterized by selectivity.

The nervous system of humans and animals encodes information received as a result of exposure to the external environment. One type of this code is anatomical. According to the "specific nerve energy" theory, different sensory modalities (vision, touch, hearing) arise because in these cases, neural pathways leading to different areas of the brain are stimulated by corresponding receptors. However, anatomical coding does not identify the causes of sensory differences within one sensitivity: the perception of pink as opposed to red; perception of flute sounds that differ from trumpet sounds; the perception of a pin prick as opposed to a kiss. In these cases, information is encoded functionally. The picture of the functional code is determined by which cells are active at the moment, what their number is, the speed and structure of their excitation.

Despite the variety of sensations that arise during the operation of the senses, one can find a number of fundamentally common features in their structure and functioning. Analyzers are a set of interacting formations of the peripheral and central nervous systems that receive and analyze information about phenomena occurring both inside and outside the body.

– Extremely high sensitivity to adequate stimuli. A quantitative measure of sensitivity is the threshold intensity, that is, the lowest intensity of the stimulus, the impact of which gives sensation.

– The presence of differential (discriminating, difference, contrast) sensitivity, that is, the ability to establish differences in intensity between stimuli.

– Adaptation, that is, the ability of analyzers to adapt the level of their sensitivity to the intensity of the stimulus.

– Trainability of analyzers, that is, increased sensitivity and acceleration of adaptation processes under the influence of the sensory activity itself.

– The ability of analyzers to retain sensation for some time after the cessation of the stimulus. This “inertia” of sensations is designated as a consequence, or sequential images.

– Constant interaction of analyzers under normal operating conditions.

Sensitivity, according to B. M. Teplov and V. D. Nebylitsyn, is an indicator of the type of higher nervous activity of a person.

A huge branch of psychology—psychophysics—is devoted to the study of sensations (from the point of view of their occurrence and differentiation).

Considering sensation as a reflection, you need to remember about the other side - regulatory . The assessment of distance, the force of the hand on an object, the volume of the spoken word are regulated by the sensations that arise. Thus, I.M. Sechenov wrote: “Sensation everywhere has the role of a regulator of movements.” Reflecting objective conditions and regulating the course of actions, sensory images ensure the adequacy of actions to the objects to which they are directed and the conditions in which they occur.

Development process

The formation of perception occurs throughout a person’s life. This process never stops as long as movement occurs. While still a child, each individual develops a real-time perception system. It subsequently influences how each new object is received by the brain.

The creation of information flow occurs through the following processes:

games and communication with peers;
physical contact with objects and living organisms makes a significant contribution to knowledge of the world;
both work and rest are necessary, even fights are necessary for the development process;
endless experiments help to form the correct perception: “the path of difficult mistakes” is needed to correct memory that was recorded incorrectly under the influence of many life factors;
the search for a stimulus to movement is developed in infancy and remains the main factor in motivating a particular activity.

In adulthood, a person experiences interest when something new appears in the surrounding space. This especially attracts attention if the object stands out from the usual picture. Internal excitation is explained by the adaptation reflex, which is inherent in nature itself.

The perception of the world is much more effective when leaving the “comfort zone”. This rule is followed by many personnel development companies. Conditions are artificially created when a person is, as it were, taken out of the usual familiar space. This achieves the emergence of an internal stimulus for learning in a new reality.

In schools, creatively thinking teachers take classes outside or to another chosen place so that the body gets a shake-up and activates intuitive adaptive reflexes. A related recommendation is to change jobs more often, at least once every 3 years. Development requires a change of environment and familiar space. A complete rewrite of existing information about the world is necessary.

If you spend very long years in a closed room (office, one work place), the body gradually goes into a semi-dormant state. This is especially true for clerks who perform routine work in a sedentary position and do not engage in sports. A change of environment becomes like the effect of bombarding the memory with a new flow of information. A person, without noticing it, becomes able to assimilate material that was previously impossible even to simply read.

Timepsychology

The perception of a person, whose task is to form correct images of the surrounding reality, is subject to certain laws. Many facts indicate the large role that movements play in perception, and this applies mainly to the main types of perception: visual, auditory, tactile. Without the movement of the external sense organs or the internal movement replacing it, the formation of an adequate image apparently does not occur, and the nature of the movements performed in the perceptual system plays an important role in accurately determining the real picture of the world we perceive. The Russian physiologist I.M. contributed a lot of useful information to the understanding of the psychophysiological mechanisms of perception associated with movements. Sechenov. He directly connected them with the functioning of the muscular system. The distance to objects, their depth and height, paths and speeds of movement, wrote I.M. Sechenov, all these are products of “muscular feeling”, i.e. sensations delivered to the brain by a working muscle. The same muscle feeling, being fractional in intermittent periodic movements, becomes a time meter. The speed of contraction of the muscles associated with the organs of tracking the object, the type of muscles being contracted can convey information about the nature of the movements of the object itself. Consequently, the first and fundamental law of perception is its direct connection with the work of muscles, with various kinds of movements that carry multifaceted information about the perceived objects. https://spring.togliatti.su/ cups for springs in Togliatti.

Another important law of perception is the relative stability of already formed images, especially when their functioning is associated with thinking.

In order for the perception to be correct, constant exercises and a continuous influx of information into the central nervous system are necessary to correct the incorrectly formed image. D. Bohm draws the following conclusion: “The general structural elements of the “tuning” established in the brain from early childhood tend to disintegrate when they are not faced with an environment that has the corresponding structure.” This kind of attunement to the outside world, which in an adult is maintained through constant stimulation of his senses, is created and developed from childhood.

The question of how our perception is influenced by the external world and internal experience has long been discussed by scientists, but a final answer has not yet been received. Since the time of the English philosopher and psychologist John Locke, who was one of the first to become interested in this problem, many concepts of perception have been proposed. One of them was called nativist (from the word “nature” - nature). According to it, perception is derived from the “mental abilities” supposedly existing in humans by nature. Another theory states that image formation is the result of learning, thinking and experience. Our brain gradually accumulates information about the world in the form of memory traces, in the form of mental attitudes, general ideas, and concepts. They directly influence perception, determining the content, meaning and nature of the emerging images.

Perception should be considered as an intellectual process associated with an active search for signs necessary and sufficient for forming an image and making decisions. The sequence of acts included in this process can be imagined as follows:

1. Primary selection of a set of stimuli from the flow of information and making a decision that they relate to the same specific object.

2. Search in memory for a complex of features similar or similar in composition of sensations, comparison with which of what is perceived allows one to judge what kind of object it is.

3. Assignment of the perceived object to a certain category, followed by a search for additional signs that confirm or refute the correctness of the hypothetical decision made.

4. The final conclusion about what kind of object it is, with the attribution to it of not yet perceived properties characteristic of objects of the same class.

From everything that has already been said about perception, it follows that it changes under the influence of human living conditions, i.e. develops.

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Internal conflicts

The process of perception is complex in terms of event classification. It can be described by a set of accidents in the life of each individual. The area of memory responsible for storing the accumulated base of comparison with the outside world is affected by all senses: hearing, vision, touch, smell, taste.

Under certain conditions, a person’s internal thinking comes into conflict with the innate reflex - to experience the world as it is. So, when you see a flying person, the first negative reaction arises: “this can’t be.” But if he himself flies after a while, then inner peace will come - the adaptation of memory to changing conditions has been successful.

If it is impossible to adapt, when a person has internal contradictions, difficulties are observed in assessing the surrounding space. Disorientation persists, the person cannot lead a normal life in the new conditions. In this case, he will need psychological help and training. All information is contained in the internal structures of the brain. This is proven by a study of the feelings of people who have experienced limb amputation.

For a long time it seems to a person that he can move it and feels it. For many, this feeling lasts for the rest of their lives. Phantom pains occur periodically, preventing the patient from adapting to the new reality.

Intuitively, a person tries to grab a falling object with his missing hand or grab a handle or handrail with it. Memory is firmly fixed in the depths of the nervous system, the brain. Phantoms are developed over the course of life. If a limb is missing from birth, this effect is not observed.

Age

The laws of perception in psychology are determined by the process of human development. An established worldview is more difficult to disrupt with age. Up to 9 years of age, internal memory accumulates. Upon completion of this time threshold, a complete base of perception of the surrounding space is accumulated.

It is for this period of life that a person is adapted to life. The basis of perception has already been prepared. From this age, phantoms are observed after limb amputation.

No one has yet provided clear evidence indicating a psychological component in the work of the senses. The examples given are only the results of the research; it is not possible to explain the deep meaning of the perception of the surrounding world from a scientific point of view. Scientists cannot give a definitive answer on how a person can acquire the following abilities through the senses:

thinking, the ability to make logical conclusions;
intuitive abilities;
gestal structures of perception.

It is impossible to answer the question of how a person acquires these abilities through the senses. This is mainly studied by philosophers. The scientific point of view does not explain the mechanisms of transmission of hidden information.

From experiments it is clear that for the correct perception of the world it is not enough to cognize the world with the senses known to us. Some information about the world around us must come through other channels that are still unknown to science.

Famous works of philosophers

The main assumption of scientists about the acquisition of abilities to understand the world was nativist, or natural. It looked at the question in the following way: all information is embedded in a person from birth through genes. The areas of the mind responsible for this are formed according to laws that are still unclear to science. The works of the English psychologist and philosopher J. Locke have many thoughts on this topic.

His works and those of many of his followers compare possible options for acquiring abilities through work and experience. Refutations of the theory about the accumulation of memory throughout life are also provided. Thus, I.M. Sechenov, a domestic psychologist, considered the role of muscle memory in human life.

D. Bohm considered the theory of acquiring abilities through human movement. His works contained experiments comparing the adaptation of an active and passive individual. But their works did not contain any scientific evidence of the process of information accumulation. The hypotheses remain unconfirmed and raise doubts among many communities searching for answers to this question.

At the moment, all philosophers and psychologists agree on only one thing: a person absorbs information about the world around him through the senses, but part of it comes through invisible ways: the mind or is formed at birth. The surrounding world influences consciousness and distorts the idea of surrounding objects. This is confirmed by the simple experiment below.

Often a person cannot immediately determine the obvious essence of a visible object. The subject is shown a blurry drawing; it is unclear to him what is depicted. But when researchers name objects and show their outlines, a full picture of individual objects immediately emerges in the subject’s brain.

The person gave meaning to what he saw with the help of his own thinking. Trial and error play an important role in this process. Each time refuting its conclusions, the brain corrects the memory and the next time identifies objects accurately.

Laws of perception

Basic properties and types of perception

6. Laws of perception

Another important law of perception is the relative stability of already formed images, especially when their functioning is associated with thinking.

1. Primary selection of a set of stimuli from the flow of information and making a decision that they relate to the same specific object.

2. Search in memory for a complex of features similar or similar in composition of sensations, comparison with which of what is perceived allows one to judge what kind of object it is.

3. Assignment of the perceived object to a certain category, followed by a search for additional signs that confirm or refute the correctness of the hypothetical decision made.

4. The final conclusion about what kind of object it is, with the attribution to it of not yet perceived properties characteristic of objects of the same class.

From everything that has already been said about perception, it follows that it changes under the influence of human living conditions, i.e. develops.

Conclusion

Perception is the process of forming, through active actions, a subjective image of a holistic object that directly affects analyzers. Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties of objects, in the image of perception the entire object, in the totality of its invariant properties, is represented as a unit of interaction.

The image of perception appears as a result of the synthesis of sensations, the possibility of which arose in phylogenesis in connection with the transition of living beings from a homogeneous, objectively unformed environment to an objectively shaped environment. Depending on the biological significance of the perceived object, either one or another quality may be leading, which determines which analyzer information will be considered a priority.

In accordance with this, visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory perception are distinguished. In this case, a particularly important role in all types of perception is played by motor or kinesthetic sensations, which regulate the real relationship of the subject with the object according to the feedback principle. In particular, in visual perception, along with the visual sensations themselves (color, light), kinesthetic sensations accompanying eye movements (accommodation, convergence and divergence, tracking) are also integrated.

Also in the process of auditory perception, weak movements of the articulatory apparatus play an active role. It is characteristic of a person that the images of his perception integrate the use of speech. Due to verbal designation, the possibility of abstracting and generalizing the properties of objects arises.

Bibliography

1. Maklakov, A.G. General psychology [Text] / A.G. Maklakov. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000. – 592 p.

2. Nemov, R.S. Psychology [Text] / R.S. Nemov. – M.: Education: Vlados, 1994. – Book. 1. – 576 p.

3. Rean, A.A. Psychology and pedagogy [Text] / A.A. Rean, N.V. Bordovskaya, S.I. Rozum. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000. – 432 p.

Basic properties and types of perception

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Adaptation sequence

The body’s work to enter information into memory is conventionally divided into several successive stages. The beginning of object recognition is due to the active work of all senses. The brain tries to process the information received and compare it with accumulated knowledge. The intellectual process does not end until all the features related to this object are identified.

Unnecessary information is eliminated, leaving only that which is characteristic of the subject under consideration. If it is already in memory, then the comparison ends the whole process. In the absence of correspondence, the brain tries to identify the object's belonging to any category. Subsequently, a search for common features occurs.

Even if the properties of an object have not yet been determined, information about its membership in a specific category is recorded in memory. This recognition process depends on accumulated experience. All mechanisms are involved here: thinking, internal information about the object, sensory organs. It can be concluded that the absence of at least one of them will not make it possible to obtain a reliable and complete picture.

Laws of organization of perception

Due to the fact that one of the main properties of perception is integrity, in psychology considerable attention is paid to research into the organization of perception, in particular the principles (laws) of perceptual grouping. This problem has been most fully studied in Gestalt psychology , which asserts that the whole is always greater than the sum of its parts. The most important of the principles mentioned is that any image or object is perceived as a figure that stands out against a certain background.

The principle of figure and ground applies to all modalities of perception. An example of the relationship between figure and ground is the Ruby Vase. Either a vase or two profiles can be perceived as a figure. Accordingly, the background will be black or white in the image. In other words, figure and ground are interchangeable: a figure can turn into a background, and a background into a figure.

Canadian psychologist J. Godefroy gives the following examples of the relationship between figure and ground for different modalities of perception. When someone says your name in the general noise of the meeting, it immediately appears as a figure against the background of other voices. The same phenomenon can be observed when we catch the smell of a rose when we are among smokers, or the smell of a cigarette near a rose bed.

We emphasize that the separation of figure from background (like all stages of perceptual division) is the exclusive merit of the perceiving subject, which has nothing to do with the characteristics of the object itself. This fact becomes quite obvious in such situations when we discover other ways of recognizing the stimulus.

For example, in the same Rubin vase, the same image can be considered a white vase, or it can be considered two human profiles. Such reverse images help to understand that, from the point of view of perceptual grouping, the stimulus itself is neutral: the roles of figure and ground are determined by the observer.

Law of proximity . Those parts of the visual image that are close to each other tend to be perceived as a whole. Thus, the closer two figures are located to each other, the greater the tendency towards their perceptual grouping.

Law of Similarity . According to M. Wertheimer , other things being equal, if several identical stimuli are presented together, there is a tendency, when perceiving a given form, to combine similar elements into groups. We group figures that are similar to each other. For example, we combine light circles with light ones, and dark ones with dark ones, just like vertical lines with vertical ones, and horizontal lines with horizontal ones.

The law of closure states that, other things being equal, the elements that form a closed figure or whole will be organized together or grouped, and the missing parts of a certain figure will be supplemented.

For example, one blind subject was presented with a relief image of a duck, which had only one wing. The blind man joked that the second wing must be "on the other side of the sheet." And he added that, of course, this second wing is “only imaginary.”

Law of good continuation . When a straight or curved line continues from any point without significantly changing its curvature, it can be said to have a smooth continuation (transition). Gestalt psychologists, instead of the term “smooth transition,” used the term “good continuation,” . According to the law of good continuation, parts of the visual image are grouped so that disruptions to smooth lines are minimal.

Law of pregnancy (good form). The followers of Gestalt psychology were convinced that all principles of grouping were manifestations of the tendency of perceptual organization to be "good", "simple", "stable", "internally consistent", "symmetrical" or, to use the German word coined by Gestalt psychologists and including all these concepts, "pregnant".

Pregnancy means significance, content, conveying the essence of something. In other words, there is a preference for the simplest perceptual organization. This law was most clearly stated by K. Koffka :

From a number of possible geometric organizations, the one that has the best, simplest and most stable form is implemented in practice.

The good form factor prevails even when faced with past experience. For example, camouflage can be a good way to hide an object from view.