Results of scientific research interpretation of scientific research results

Concept of interpretation

The term “interpretation” itself, translated from Latin, means “interpretation”, “explanation”, explanation of the meaning of something.
Interpretation has long been fruitfully used in psychological and pedagogical research as a part of theoretical and empirical methods. The influences on the subject recorded during the period of psychological and pedagogical research are interpreted; answers obtained through sample surveys; the child’s choice, noted in the results of sociometry, drawing tests, documentary materials and much more. Undoubtedly established correspondences can help a researcher interpret certain objects, actions, processes: between a person’s sensory states and his gestures, between any images in a drawing and a person’s attitude to his environment, between living conditions and methods of expressing thoughts and experiences.

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Interpretation is necessary for information to be transformed into knowledge. Interpreting certain objects or actions, the researcher identifies all sorts of nuances of the information acquired about them, evaluates its capabilities in solving research problems, makes guesses about the root causes of actions, the likely motives of the participants in the pedagogical situation, etc.

On the classical side, interpretation is the process of analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to determine its significance and usefulness for a given study. Along with other methods, interpretation is a relevant part of the entire methodology of psychological and pedagogical research.

At the same time, in progressive psychological and pedagogical sciences interpretation is used as an independent research method. It always exists where there is a polysyllabic meaning, a plurality of contents appears. This is especially relevant for psychological and pedagogical reality, which is almost always multi-valued, multi-variant, and has within itself a large number of developmental abilities.

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Coursework Interpretation of research results 490 ₽ Abstract Interpretation of research results 260 ₽ Test paper Interpretation of research results 190 ₽

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Interpretation in psychological and pedagogical research is based on the recognition of value-semantic plurality, the desire for information and value-semantic exchange between various sciences, doctrines, concepts, paradigms, as well as between participants in pedagogical interaction.

Interpretation of laboratory results

A comprehensive qualified assessment of the research results can only be made by the attending physician.

Changes in the same parameter can be due to many reasons, and do not always indicate a disease. Therefore, the attending physician, after comparing all the examination results and the clinical picture, can decide to prescribe treatment, additional studies or provide other recommendations.

The following examples of how to interpret some changes in tests will help increase awareness of possible problems and increase motivation to seek qualified medical help.

GENERAL BLOOD ANALYSIS

IMMUNOCHEMICAL STUDIES:

TUMOR MARKERS

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) – normal up to 4.0 ng/ml

• PSA testing increases the detection rate of prostate cancer in the early stages, at which radical cure is possible. If PSA increases >4.0, you should consult a urologist to rule out prostate cancer or benign prostatic hyperplasia.
• PSA can also increase in lung cancer, rectal and sigmoid colon cancer, adrenal cancer, breast cancer, and hepatocellular carcinoma.

CA-125 is a tumor marker for ovarian cancer - the norm is up to 35 U/ml.

Reasons for increased CA 125:

• Ovarian cancer, primarily of the serous type; endometrial cancer, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, stomach cancer, primary liver cancer, lung adenocarcinoma, colorectal cancer;
• Other diseases: exudative pleurisy, pericarditis, peritonitis, ascites of various etiologies, acute pancreatitis, renal failure, hepatitis, cirrhosis, pneumonia, endometriosis, adenomyosis, benign tumors and ovarian cysts.

Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) - tumor marker - norm up to 5.0 ng/l

Reasons for increasing REA:

• Adenogenic tumors: colorectal cancer, stomach cancer, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, endometrial cancer, prostate cancer, ovarian cancer, adenocarcinoma of the cervix and lung;
• Other diseases: hepatitis, cirrhosis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, bronchitis, emphysema, cystic fibrosis, pancreatitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, autoimmune diseases.

CA 15-3 – is the marker of choice for breast cancer – the norm is up to 25 U/ml

Reasons for increasing CA 15-3:

• Breast cancer, ovarian cancer, liver cancer, endometrial cancer. In some cases, the level of tumor marker increases in malignant blood diseases and sarcomas.
• Other diseases (rare): mastopathy and benign breast tumors, hepatitis, sarcoidosis, tuberculosis, pneumonia, bronchitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, HIV infection.

HORMONE STUDIES

Laboratory diagnosis of the thyroid gland

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, TSH, TSH) - synthesized in the adenohypophysis, has an effect on the thyroid gland, stimulates the synthesis of thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3) and their release into the bloodstream - the norm is 0.4-5.0 mIU/ml

Increased TSH concentration:

Primary hypofunction of the thyroid gland; Subacute thyroiditis; Hashimoto's thyroiditis; Pituitary tumor; Endemic goiter; Condition after iodine therapy; Thyroid cancer; Ectopic secretion in tumors of the lung and mammary gland.

Decrease in TSH concentration:

Primary hyperfunction of the thyroid gland; Hypothalamic-pituitary insufficiency; Tumor, trauma, necrosis of the pituitary gland; Itsenko-Cushing syndrome; Taking thyroid hormones, acetylsalicylic acid, corticosteroids, heparin administration.

Free T4 is a direct marker of thyroid function – the norm is 10-24 pmol/l

Increasing the concentration of free T4:

Hyperthyroidism; Acute thyroiditis; Treatment with L-thyroxine; Pregnancy; Obesity; Taking estrogens, amiodarone, heroin, etc.

Decrease in the concentration of free T4:

Hypofunction of the thyroid gland; Thyroid cancer; resection of the thyroid gland; Itsenko-Cushing syndrome; Increased loss of protein in the urine or through the gastrointestinal tract; Significant iodine deficiency; Taking corticosteroids, sulfonamides, etc.

Antibodies to thyroid peroxidase (A-TPO) are the main marker of autoimmune diseases of the thyroid gland - the norm is up to 30 U/ml

Indications for use:

Hashimoto's thyroiditis; Graves' disease; Chronic autoimmune thyroiditis.

BIOCHEMICAL RESEARCH

A biochemical blood test is a laboratory research method that reflects the functional state of various organs. Deviation of biochemical blood test values ​​from the norm may indicate a dysfunction of the liver, kidneys and other organs, the presence of an active inflammatory process, a rheumatic process, as well as a violation of water-salt metabolism and an imbalance of microelements. All indicators of a biochemical blood test usually do not have clear values; the normal value is between a certain minimum and maximum value. Moreover, in different laboratories these values ​​may be different. Very often, the results of the same biochemical blood test are interpreted differently. This is due to the fact that deviation of the same indicator from the norm occurs in different diseases. Only a doctor can compare the results of biochemical and other tests with the symptoms of the disease and make a diagnosis based on them. Even if a person does not yet have any symptoms of the disease, a biochemical blood test will help determine changes in the chemical composition of the blood, and thus identify organ dysfunction at an early stage.

Protein metabolism indicators

total protein (normal 64-83g/l), albumin (normal 35-50g/l)

The level of protein in the body is influenced by the nature of nutrition, kidney and liver function, and metabolic disorders.

creatinine (normal for women 44-96 µmol/l; for men 62-106 µmol/l),

urea (normal 2.5-8.3 mmol/l)

Urea is formed in the liver; with severe damage to this organ, its concentration in the blood can be reduced. Urea and creatinine are excreted from the body by the kidneys. Their accumulation in the blood reflects a violation of the excretory function of the kidneys, indicating renal failure

uric acid (normal for women 150-350 µmol/l; for men 210-420 µmol/l)

The study of uric acid content is of particular interest for the diagnosis of gout (deposition of uric acid salts in joints and other tissues), its level increases in the blood and urine. An increase in the concentration of uric acid in the blood is observed when the excretory function of the kidneys is impaired in patients with glomerulonephritis.

Specific proteins

ferritin (normal 20-200 µg/l)

It is the main protein that stores iron. By its content in the blood plasma one can judge the iron reserves in the body. Low ferritin values ​​are the first indicator of a decrease in iron stores in the body.

CRP (C-reactive protein) - norm up to 5.0 mg/l

Inflammatory processes, bacterial infections, multiple injuries, myocardial infarction, rheumatism, systemic lupus erythematosus, infectious inflammatory polyarthritis and other diseases are accompanied by a sharp increase in the concentration of CRP in the blood. Sustained high concentrations of CRP indicate an unfavorable prognosis of the disease. Thus, monitoring the level of CRP in the blood helps to take timely therapeutic measures.

rheumatoid factor (norm up to 30 IU/l)

Present in the blood in rheumatoid arthritis and is used to control the progression of this disease. May be present in high titers in various autoimmune diseases of a non-rheumatoid nature.

Enzymes

AST (aspartate aminotransferase), ALAT (alanine aminotransferase) – the norm is up to 40 U/l

(together they are usually called “transaminases”). An increase in AST activity reflects damage to the heart muscle tissue (myocardial infarction); ALT – damage to liver cells (acute and chronic hepatitis, liver carcinoma).

alkaline phosphatase (norm up to 270 U/l)

The enzyme enters the bloodstream when cells of the biliary tract are damaged and is considered a specific indicator for this type of pathology (obstructive jaundice, cholangitis, cholecystitis), and the level of its activity increases when bone tissue is damaged (osteosarcoma, osteomalacia, Paget's disease, rickets). Alkaline phosphatase activity decreases with decreased thyroid function.

GGT (gamma-glutamyltransferase) – norm up to 55 U/l

Enzyme activity increases with toxic liver damage, reacts violently to alcohol intoxication and is a specific indicator for diagnosing alcohol-related liver dysfunction; enzyme activity also increases with diseases of the biliary tract.

Amylase – norm 22-80U/l

An increase in amylase activity is of greatest importance in the diagnosis of pancreatic diseases: acute pancreatitis, exacerbation of chronic pancreatitis. Its decrease is detected in liver diseases.

LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) – norm 207-414 U/l

Significantly increases with myocardial infarction, insufficiency of the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems, an increase in its activity is very characteristic of the acute phase of infectious hepatitis.

ChE (cholinesterase) - the norm for women is 3930-10800 U/l; for men-4620-11500U/l

The determination of ChE is used as a test to assess the functional state of the liver during inflammatory processes in it. A decrease in enzyme activity is observed with congestion in the liver, obstructive jaundice, cholelithiasis, and cholangitis. ChE activity increases in severe kidney diseases.

Pigment metabolism indicators

Bilirubin (normal 5.0-20.5 µmol/l)

In case of infectious or toxic damage to liver cells, disturbances occur in individual parts of bilirubin metabolism, which is accompanied by an increase in its concentration in the blood serum.

Indicators of carbohydrate metabolism

glucose (normal 3.1-6.2 mmol/l)

Determining blood glucose levels is the main method for diagnosing and monitoring the treatment of diabetes mellitus. To identify a latent form of diabetes, a glucose tolerance test should be used. An increase in glucose concentration can be caused by conditions associated with severe liver damage, activation of the thyroid gland, pituitary gland, adrenal glands, and brain tumors.

HbA1c (glycated hemoglobin) (normal without diabetes mellitus up to 5.7%)

HbA1c concentration allows retrospective assessment of the level of hyperglycemia

(increased glucose levels) in diabetes mellitus and gives a closer correlation with the severity of hyperglycemia in patients with diabetes mellitus.

Lipid metabolism indicators

cholesterol (normal 3.1-5.2 mmol/l)

An increased level of cholesterol in the blood is one of the most important signs of the development of atherosclerosis; its level increases with coronary heart disease, obstructive jaundice, kidney damage, and diabetes mellitus. The concentration of cholesterol decreases in malignant neoplasms, tuberculosis, anemia, and damage to the central nervous system.

triglycerides (normal 0.5-1.7 mmol/l)

They are an important indicator in the diagnosis of lipid metabolism disorders

LDL (low density lipoprotein) – normal 1.3-4.12 mmol/l

These are atherogenic lipoproteins that transport cholesterol from the liver to tissue cells, accumulating in them and stimulating the formation of cholesterol plaques. An increase in LDL levels is directly related to the risk of developing atherosclerotic diseases, myocardial infarction and cerebrovascular disorders.

HDL (high density lipoprotein) – normal 0.9-2.1 mmol/l

These are antiatherogenic lipoproteins that transport cholesterol from the cells of the vascular walls and cells of peripheral tissues and thus contribute to the removal of cholesterol from the body. All centenarians have high levels of HDL in their blood.

Indicators of mineral metabolism

calcium (normal 2.15-2.58 mmol/l), magnesium (normal 0.7-0.98 mmol/l), phosphorus (normal 0.81 – 1.45 mmol/l)

In the electrolyte balance of the body, there are no isolated disturbances in the exchange of one electrolyte without disturbances in the exchange of other electrolytes. Thus, in chronic renal failure, a number of characteristic electrolyte disturbances are observed (increased concentrations of potassium, phosphorus, magnesium; decreased concentrations of calcium). With various forms of bone tissue pathology, with insufficiency of the thyroid gland, disturbances in the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus occur.

iron (normal for women 9.0-30.4 µmol/l; for men 11.6-31.6 µmol/l)

Iron deficiency or excess in the blood are the main disorders of iron metabolism. Altered iron metabolism is associated with a number of diseases, primarily various types of anemia (iron deficiency, hemolytic, hypoplastic, anemia associated with inflammation, purulent septic infection)

The standards are indicated for reagents and methods used in the laboratory of branch No. 6

COAGULOGICAL STUDIES (ASSESSMENT OF THE HEMOSTASIS SYSTEM)

APTT (activated partial thromboplastin time)

used to diagnose hemophilia and to detect lupus anticoagulant. The test is used when choosing anticoagulant therapy and to monitor treatment. Prolongation of APTT indicates a deficiency of coagulation factors and the risk of bleeding; shortening of the APTT indicates activation of the process and the risk of thrombosis.

PT (prothrombin time)

The test is one of the main basic tests used in everyday practice for the diagnosis of thromboembolism and hemorrhagic conditions during treatment with indirect anticoagulants. A decrease in the activity of prothrombin complex factors is observed in liver diseases, emphysema, and the active phase of rheumatism. An increase in the activity of factors is observed in patients with hypertension, with severe atherosclerosis, and thrombophlebitis.

INR (international normalized ratio)

Evaluating the results of the prothrombin test using INR allows you to monitor the effectiveness and safety of the use of oral anticoagulants, which are prescribed for the treatment and prevention of venous and systemic thromboembolism, pulmonary embolism, thromboembolism with mechanical prosthetic heart valves, and rheumatic heart disease.

fibrinogen

At the same time, it is an acute phase protein (increases in pneumonia, myocardial infarction, rheumatism) and an important blood clotting factor. Normally it increases in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy.

D-dimers

Diagnostic markers of many pathological conditions of the blood coagulation system. Their determination is widely used for the diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, disseminated intravascular coagulation syndrome, oncological and inflammatory diseases, atrial fibrillation, extensive hematomas and injuries, atherosclerotic vascular lesions, and is a valuable indicator of diagnosis and adequacy of therapy during pregnancy.

DISEASE OF THE GINOROGENITAL SYSTEM

General urine analysis:

Urine examination is used in the diagnosis of diseases of the kidneys and bladder and other organs. Urine examination allows you to detect diseases in the early stages, provide information about the location, type and stage of the pathological process, and sometimes make a diagnosis.

Urinalysis according to Nechiporenko:

quantitative counting of leukocytes, erythrocytes, casts, allows to identify hidden forms of diseases of the urinary system

DISEASES OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

Scatological studies (general stool analysis):

Allows you to examine the digestive ability of the gastrointestinal tract (insufficient chewing syndrome, insufficient pancreatic digestion syndrome, insufficient bile secretion syndrome, indigestion syndrome in the small intestine, large intestine) to examine feces for worm eggs, Giardia cysts.

Blood test for occult blood

A positive reaction indicates minor bleeding from the gastrointestinal tract. The occurrence of hidden blood in the stool is associated with diseases such as ulcerative-necrotic inflammatory pathologies, as well as malignant neoplasms of the stomach or intestines.

Stages of interpretation

In the interpretation of any information, as a rule, there is a certain sequence of actions:

• assumptions;
• determining the reliability of information;
• reflection and penetration into information, which often reflects the personal position of the prospector, is considered a consequence of standards, bias, etc.;
• organization of information;
• comparison with data from other sources, with other situations and conditions;
• direct multidimensional analysis;
• identifying root cause and effect;
• synthesis;
• final conclusions;
• evaluation of information to prove or refute a research hypothesis.

Analysis and interpretation of qualitative data (page 1)

Chapter
8 : Analysis and Interpretation of Qualitative Data

Qualitative research does not end with data collection. The culmination of all work is not the field stage, but the analysis, interpretation and presentation of the results to the customer or readership.

The problem is to find hidden meaning in the mass of collected materials, to effectively “collapse” the huge amount of information, to create or discover important models or structures, and to decide in what form it is best to convey what the data reveals to us. Unfortunately, there are no indisputable rules for qualitative data analysis that would have universal significance for drawing conclusions and checking their stability and reliability. Unlike quantitative analysis, we have no hard-and-fast formulas or effective criteria for determining the significance of results. There are essentially no direct tests to test the reliability and validity of the findings. In addition, we cannot accurately reproduce the researcher's analytical thinking process and therefore his conclusions may not be reproducible. In short, there are no absolute rules except one: do your best to clearly and fully present your data and what you find in it to your readers.

This does not mean, however, that we do not have any clues that could help in analyzing the data. But these guidelines and procedural sentences are not rules. Because each qualitative study is unique, so will the analytical apparatus used. Just like field qualitative use

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following depends at each stage on the skills, training and abilities of the field researcher, qualitative analysis depends on the analytical abilities and style of the analyst. It is important to remember that the notorious “human factor” is both a great strength and a fundamental weakness of qualitative survey and analysis.

In this chapter, we will demonstrate strategies, guidelines, and ideas for analyzing, interpreting, and presenting qualitative data. These strategies and ideas are thought-provoking and make work easier, rather than limiting or complicating the researcher's work. Typically, in order to better adapt to a specific research situation, the analyst must adapt a number of strategies and techniques to his needs. However, once an analysis is completed, those who performed it have a responsibility to report their analytical procedures as completely and reliably as possible. This means that qualitative analysis is actually another stage of fieldwork in which analysts must similarly engage in self-observation and self-monitoring. In any case, the analyst is required to report the analytical procedures used in a special section of his report on the results obtained.

Focusing
the Analysis
The first task in qualitative analysis is description. It answers questions like: “What happened, how and under what conditions?”; “What were the participants’ goals?”; “What happened to them later?”

Description must be separated from interpretation. Interpretation involves explaining results, answering “why” questions, and developing models and theoretical explanations. It is tempting to begin the creative work of interpreting the data before completing the hard work of putting together consistent answers to the main descriptive questions. But description must always precede analysis. The discipline and rigor of qualitative analysis depends

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from presenting solid descriptive data in a way that readers can understand, draw conclusions from, and interpret.

Strategies
for Analyzing Interviews
The first decision to make when analyzing interviews is whether to start by analyzing a single case or comparing cases to one another. If it is decided to start with a case study, then it is necessary to conduct a study for each interviewee or each unit under study (i.e., each critical event, each group, etc.). If you decide to start with a cross-sectional analysis, then it is necessary to group the answers received from different people to the same questions, or analyze different points of view on the same problems.

Cross-analysis of a number of cases or interview fragments dealing with the same issues can only be done relatively easily if a standardized open-ended interview is used. If the decision is made to opt for an unstructured in-depth interview, then although the responses of different people can, if desired, be grouped into topics, it can hardly be expected that the relevant data will be in the same place in each transcript.

These two strategies are not mutually exclusive. The study usually includes both types of analysis, but you have to start with one or the other. Trying to simultaneously examine individual cases and conduct cross-sectional analysis on a topic can only lead to confusion.

Strategies
for analyzing observational
data The initial analysis of observational data is greatly facilitated if it is clear in what form it will be most useful in presenting the results. Choices may be made in favor of principles of chronology, key events, conditions, people, processes and key issues. The principle of chronological description is to describe what was observed in chronological order, telling

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to tell a “story” from beginning to end. The key event approach is based on presenting data starting with critical incidents, ordered by their significance rather than by the order in which they occurred over time. The principle of describing conditions puts at the center the description of various places, points, location features, and territory for subsequent cross-analysis. If the primary unit of analysis is people or groups, then they can also become the focus of the study. Data can be organized in such a way as to describe important processes occurring in such groups (control, decision making, socialization, communication). Observations can also be brought together to highlight those key issues that align with the primary research questions.

It should be reiterated that there are no mutually exclusive ways of organizing observational data. The crux of the problem is that the researcher must have some initial design to control the extremely large and usually poorly structured data collected during the field phase of the work.

Beginning of
analysis
It is often impossible to specify the point at which data collection stops and analysis begins, since ideas for possible analysis begin already at the field stage. The present analysis begins with these “rough” ideas preserved in the field diaries. This is why it is so important to write down the analytical considerations that come to mind while collecting data. This “overlap” in time between the collection and analysis phases improves both the quality of the data collected and the quality of the analysis, at least until researchers allow their initial interpretations to bias the collection of new data. Indeed, rather than focusing the collection of additional data on confirming initial field hypotheses (why go out into the field at all?

field if the answer to all questions is known in advance?), the researcher can redirect field work to search for alternative explanations that would show the original guesses to be wrong. When data collection is formally completed and the time for final analysis has passed, the researcher has two primary sources from which to base the analysis. The first includes those issues that arose during the conceptual phase of the study and were clarified until the final analysis, the second includes analytical ideas and interpretations that arose during data collection.

Organizing
Data
Data collected using qualitative methods tend to be voluminous. Usually these are hundreds of tape recorders, thousands of pages of interview transcripts, thick notebooks covered with field notes. It may seem like an overwhelming task to figure it out.

First of all, you should make sure that everything that should be collected has been collected. Are the field notes complete? Maybe some field notes were not made on time, put aside for later and forgotten? Are there any gaps in the data that can still be filled by collecting more information before analysis begins? Are interview transcripts complete? So, first of all, the completeness and quality of the collected information is checked.

When the interviewer is confident that all data has been collected, its quality has been checked, and all gaps and omissions have been filled, analysis can begin. But first, it is recommended to make at least four full copies of all data, one backup and three copies for the different types of analysis described below. But if data is being collected over a long period of time, it's a good rule of thumb to make copies as you collect it, and keep one copy in a safe place where it can't be damaged, destroyed, or lost. Without any exaggeration, we can say that all field data is priceless. They are unique because neither the observations that were made nor the exact words that were spoken during the interview

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when it cannot be obtained in the same form, even if new observations are made and new interviews are conducted. Let us emphasize once again that primary field research materials are priceless and require careful handling.

So, one copy, let's call it the “master copy,” is kept in reserve, one copy is kept for analysis, one copy is left for marking, and one copy is kept for cutting and pasting. Much of the work in qualitative analysis involves cutting and pasting data, whether this is done with

using a computer or manually, using the “reclé” method, i.e. using scissors and glue. It is best to have at least one copy for this purpose, so that under no circumstances succumb to the temptation to “tidy up” the master copy. The master copy becomes a key resource for hosting materials and maintaining the context of the raw data. A computer “master file” should serve the same purpose.

Once copies of the data have been made, formal analysis can begin. Analyzing qualitative data is a creative process. It requires intellectual discipline, analytical rigor and a lot of work. Because different people are accustomed to doing intellectual work in different ways, there is no single way to organize, analyze, and interpret qualitative data. Therefore, the description of analytical procedures that follows is more likely to give rise to new thoughts than to pretend to be normative. Each researcher can choose for himself the analysis procedure that best suits his inclinations. The following sections describe some alternative ways to organize and present qualitative data.

Content analysis _

Content analysis generally refers to the process of identifying, coding, and categorizing the primary structures contained in interviews and observations.

Beginning content analysis: coding.

One way to begin content analysis is to review all field notes.

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ki or transcripts of interviews and write comments in the margins or even attach pieces of paper to them that contain comments about what should be done with certain pieces of data. This procedure is the first step toward organizing data into topics and files. Working with topics is similar to indexing—preparing a subject index for a book or bookmarks in computer word processors. You just need to consider what is said in this or that piece and assign it some name or label. The copy containing these notes becomes an indexed copy of the field notes or interviews.

Abbreviations are written directly on the paragraphs containing the data, in the margins, or on additional sheets attached to the pages. A complete legend for these marks is developed separately for each file and serves as the first step in organizing the data using cut-and-paste methods. The same pieces of text can serve very different purposes or illustrate different topics. This is why it is necessary to make multiple copies of the data before full indexing.

This process of organizing labels for different types of data is the first step of content analysis, through which the content of the data is classified. The preliminary development of a classification system is critical, without which the data will be in complete chaos. So, the first step of analysis is to reduce complex reality into a number of manageable classifications. J. Sand wrote in “Letters of a Traveler” that classification is Ariadne’s thread in the labyrinth of nature.

In the case where this is possible, it is better if not one, but several people work on the encoding. Each of them can code data according to classification schemes independently of the others and then the results of the coding can be compared and discussed. If differences are discovered in the way two people look at the same data, important new ones may emerge.

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to understand data ideas. In this context, this approach can be called a form of analytical triangulation.

Computer
Data
Processing Sometimes a more thorough classification analysis than a simple file system is possible and desirable. This is most true for large projects, where it can be very difficult for one person to code the entire huge data set. In this case, a more formal classification scheme should be developed that can be used by trained coders to help organize the data. Ideally, a classification scheme should make the data easily accessible to anyone who wants to use it. If the data were for a single researcher, such classification would not be necessary. To ensure access by multiple researchers, each paragraph in each interview should be assigned a number, consisting of the page number of that interview and the number of the paragraph on that page. During the course of primary interview research, a complex classification scheme is developed, consisting of several main categories and many subcategories. All these categories and subcategories have their own code numbers. Each paragraph of each interview can then be coded in any number of numeric or alphanumeric combinations sufficient to describe the content of the paragraph. A separate computer input is provided for each idea present in each paragraph. The entry contains the interview identification number, the overall content code classification number, the subgroup classification number, the page and paragraph number where the relevant material can be found, and/or a brief description of the data that the paragraph contains.

Each of the resulting codes can then be entered into a computer system, which allows all the topics included in the classification scheme to be printed, with a brief description of the content of the corresponding passages. The analyst can then use this menu to directly

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permanent transition to full texts. In addition, computer data processing systems allow simple cross-classifications and comparisons of text fragments for more in-depth analysis.

Only such a coding system is suitable for rigorous analysis of large amounts of data. A system of multiple categorical coding of each paragraph in each interview is, of course, an extraordinary form of coding that is unlikely to be used for small projects. Creating such a perfect system, despite all its desirability and versatility, may turn out to be too expensive and time consuming. However, if the data is expected to be used by several analysts or over a long period, and also taking into account the additional data that may need to be obtained over time, then such a system can be extremely useful and ultimately save a lot of money. time.

Case
Study The purpose of classifying qualitative data for content analysis is to facilitate the search for patterns in a particular setting or set of cases. There are a number of issues that are best explored through case analysis. Cases can be individuals, programs, institutions or groups. A case study in qualitative analysis is a specific way of collecting, organizing, and analyzing data. Its goal is to collect comprehensive, comprehensive, systematic information about each case of interest. Therefore, the beginning of case analysis is to ensure that the information about each case is as complete as possible.

A case study could be a study of, for example, a single institution. Such an analysis may begin with individual cases, then cross-analyze them, and finally, a combination of them, which becomes the basis for the analysis of the entire institution as a whole. Perhaps there may be more such levels or layers, especially

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if a phenomenon is being studied at the regional or national level.

Each case study is based on all the materials that have been collected for it: all interview materials, observational data, documents, impressions and statements of others, and information about changes in any characteristics of the object of study over time. All this becomes raw material used to analyze the case. At the personal level, case data may include statistical information about the individual, analysis of living conditions, autobiography, and diaries. At the institutional level, case analysis may include policy documents, reports, interviews with participants in any events, staff, observations of its work, and information about the history of the institution.

Contents of
Case
Analysis Once the initial data has been collected, the researcher can begin working on the case description. Such a description brings together and organizes huge amounts of data into a single, observable whole. These records include all information that will be used in the final analysis of the case. Information is edited, verbosity is eliminated, parts fit together better, and entries are organized for easy access or along chronological or thematic lines. Final records must be complete but controlled. Although they retain all the original information, they are organized and classified an order of magnitude better than raw materials, and no longer require additional pre-analytical processing or interpretation. This step may not be necessary, but it should be considered if there is too much raw data from interviews, observations and document collection. In many cases, the researcher can begin to prepare the final report by working with raw data.

Case notes are used to construct the case study. The latter includes information that

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which will be included in the final report. It consists of presenting descriptive data. A report may include more than one case study, but one way or another, the case is the basic descriptive component of the report.

A case study should immerse the reader in a given situation, in someone's personal life, the life of a group, the life of an institution. Each case, even when there are several of them, stands alone, allowing the reader to understand it as a unique, holistic unity. Later it may be possible and useful to compare and contrast cases, but it is primarily the cases that must be presented and understood as expressions of the phenomenon of interest to the researcher. The description of cases will be holistic, comprehensive and will include many dimensions, factors and categories, woven into a single whole in an ideographic construct.

Thus, a case report must provide a readable, descriptive picture of a person, institution, or process that is accessible to the reader of all information and necessary for their understanding. A case study can be organized chronologically or thematically and present a holistic portrait of a person or institution.

Once a case study is completed, new analytical strategies, which will be described below, are needed for future analysis and interpretation of the data.

Inductive
Analysis
Inductive analysis means that patterns, themes, and categories of analysis emerge from the data rather than being imposed on them before collection and analysis. The analyst looks at natural variations in the data.

Two modes of representation arise from data analysis. First, the analyst can use the categories developed by the respondents themselves to organize the presentation of certain themes. Secondly, the analyst may also be familiar with categories and models that the people being studied were unaware of and to describe

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After the field

did not have appropriate terms. In this case, analysts develop their own system of terms to describe inductively generated categories.

In the first case, before using these “natural” terms, it is useful to first find out how often they are used and, most importantly, whether there are any noticeable differences in their understanding. In the second case, the concepts that the researcher brings have their roots in social theory, in the existing scientific literature, or in research questions formulated before the study began. Such concepts provide a general sense of involvement in the overall research process and act as “signposts” for the analyst.

Let's see how this division into natural introduced terms is used in the compilation of typologies.

" Natural "
typologies
Typologies are classification systems built from categories that divide some aspects of the world into parts. Natural typologies first appeared in anthropology. According to some anthropologists, such as Pelto, cultural behavior should always be studied and categorized from the point of view of the participants themselves. In other words, units of conceptualization in anthropological theories should be “discovered” through the analysis of cognitive processes in the people being studied, and not imported from outside from foreign cultural (and therefore ethnocentric) classifications of behavior.

There is a strong tendency, originating in the work of comparative anthropology, to preserve and include in the accounts those "natural" typologies that people use. As F. Boas put it, the main goal is to understand people's thoughts, and all analysis of their experience should be based on their concepts, not on ours.

This approach requires an analysis of the verbal categories used by respondents in order to break down complex realities into parts. The fundamental purpose of language is to tell us what is important by giving it a name and

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research and interpretation of qualitative data

thereby separating it from other things with other names. Once such labels are identified based on an analysis of what people say, the next step is to identify the attributes or characteristics that distinguish one thing from another. So the key is to understand how people construct the world of their experience based on what they say about it (Fraik).

Two
examples “ natural ” typologies constructed by the respondent
Typology of villagers by wealth.

“Sometimes a person wants something, achieves something, but cannot. Although he works, his salary is small. But they are trying to at least support their children. And we help specifically those who received these unfortunate people... Even if they are unemployed, we also have fairly decent people who are unemployed; but there are those who... but we still help them, we help them because we feel sorry for the children. Not parents, of course, but children. They received this unfortunate 30 thousand - child benefit and quickly tried to drink it away. And we help these families. They’ll buy themselves a bottle, buy some chewing gum for the child, rejoice! And the child is happy because they rarely see this. And their neighbors will give them a piece of bread. They won't go hungry. And then, in the end, the same mother will go to the GVK in our factory, steal that chicken that has died, which is only to be processed into fertilizer, and she will cook it and the children will eat it anyway. They survive, after all, they survive. They eat and live on dead meat. And that's fine. And who said that you can die from this? This is one layer who are begging, do not work, and live on “children’s” money. But we collect for them what we can, because the children are not to blame, although children are the same. Of course, you can’t put a label on someone who will grow up like him, but looking at such a life, it’s very difficult for a person to rise up.

Others who are not drinkers, but again, are at the stage of extinction. Well, how do they live... Agriculture, of course. I even think that even if they don’t pay us at all, we will survive somehow. At least the potatoes will still be born. There will still be something in the garden: cucumbers, tomatoes, onions.

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Analysis and interpretation of qualitative data

Some kind of berries, mushrooms. This is what the forest feeds. Of course, it’s difficult to have a subsidiary farm if you don’t have a salary, because now owning a farm is very expensive. But for this we have a poultry farm, from which we can steal something if something happens. The same compound feed. Because of this, our factory (gesture is sinking). Half of our feed goes to the poultry, half to the village. Everything is stolen from us, everyone understands this perfectly well, but if you’re not caught, you’re not a thief.

“And they convinced me at the poultry farm that there is good security there now.”

- Now there is good security, but to be honest, I live here, I haven’t left anywhere and I have a household here, and my neighbors, and everyone else. But I know what I’m saying, no matter what kind of security there is. There is less stealing, less, I’m not saying anything, but it still exists. And the guards also have their own business. All have families, all have friends. This has happened all my life and everywhere. In principle, there is no point in condemning anyone for this. Why condemn if people have nowhere else to take and no one is going to help them. Because we ourselves are all state employees. For example, I’m happy to help in some way, but where will I get the money? We wanted to help at least the old grandmothers, whose pensions had not been paid for a long time, so we did not know under which article to classify all this in order to pay it. In the accounting department they say: “We ourselves live endlessly on loans, and now you’ll start giving out money.” From your wallet only. When the grandmother comes, she sits here and says that there is no money for bread - if you get 5,000: “Is that enough for you for two days?” - "Enough". He will cry here and go. This is normal. These are grandmas. Those who have not been paid a pension for a long time. Now, of course, they will pay for two months before the elections, and then again it is unknown what will happen to this population.”

Middle layer.

“These are the ones who are more or less settled in life and work. For example, I consider myself to be in the middle stratum. My salary is quite stable, my husband earns good money. Ildus, the director of his enterprise, we must give him credit, he’s trying his best to somehow improve the social status of his workers. He

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in everything, in all respects - so we (the district administration) are not denied anything. And whoever turns especially these old women... But he has his own enterprise, he has money... But he is the last, so whoever of the old women dies - but there is no one to bury - he will definitely make a fence, and order a coffin, and provide transport . In this regard, he is a very compassionate person. He also tries as hard as he can for his workers, and his salary is - well, in our entire “bush”, probably no one has such a salary as at his enterprise. Although he also has enough problems of his own. And we advocate for this enterprise to survive. With him we can somehow, but decently enough, live... Well, that’s all. Those who work in the administration, at a poultry farm, and engineers live more or less. Poultry workers, of course, have a more difficult life for them. Although it is also a middle layer. They still live somehow. At least some financial help. They may not earn much money there, but they provide help with eggs and chickens, and their own farmstead, and people get by. Unless the family, of course, is into alcohol. Those who get carried away are, accordingly, worse off at it all. Although if you really take the total aggregate income, then it would be time for everyone to die. But because of this, they buy less. If earlier the same sausage was brought to the store, it was taken with sticks and loaves, but now very little of this is consumed. This can be seen even in the store: the revenue is very small, that is, it has become more compared to previous years, but due to rising prices, but this is not the case as it was before.”

Rich.

“Those who are rich and unemployed - such people were able to get something good somewhere at some time. There are such. There are also a lot of them, the rich. There is someone who inherited something. He managed to turn around and lives on it. There is someone who sold something at a profit and he also has a car, a house, and everything is fine, although he doesn’t work. But he successfully invested his money and lives off the interest. There are rich people who have never invested anything anywhere and yet are rich. Because they can come like this, grab me by the throat and say: “Girlfriend, you owe me.” At first I had this option. I say: “What is this?

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after the field

Do I owe you? - “You have children - don’t forget.” I said, “I haven’t forgotten about it.” In principle, when children are reproached, you always want to say: “Take what you need, just leave me and my children alone, for God’s sake.” They even come up during trade - no matter what kind of trade comes, I was tired of getting out: the car pulled up, these rich, unemployed people were already near this car. Here it’s hard to say whether they are working or not, maybe they think it’s their job to rob these machines. But they are rich, they have everything. You can go to the market. They will approach anyone, one of them head-on, three more from behind: “We’ll take this jacket.” And what will this seller tell him? Never mind. Take it and just leave, you don’t need anything else. “I’m taking a box of these fruits.” - “Take it, just no more complaints.” I personally saw how this is done. And nothing, everything is fine. They give everything, and they... Because everyone is afraid for their lives and for their children. And you think it’s not the last thing they’re taking away. It seems like there’s still some, but they’ll go away and at least leave you alone, otherwise they might take it all away, the person will lose everything, but otherwise they’ll only lose part of it. Nowadays such people take everything calmly, brazenly, without hesitation. They are doing their job. This is their job."

The bulk of the population.

“Well, at least judging by the way they dress, what kind of furnishings they have at home - they are still far from extinction, far away. Although it’s hard, we’ve already gotten used to it. In principle, the population has money. In small quantities, of course, because everyone relies mainly on their own subsidiary plot. It wasn’t like this before, that for every piece of land people came here... “Here’s more land for me, more land...” Why did it disappear? Not because it was sold to someone and given away. And because now peasants have really begun to cultivate this land. And they already understood that it was really necessary for the earth to give birth. That it needs to be changed, crop rotation done... They themselves plant potatoes, then clover in this place - for subsidiary farming. Previously, they somehow didn’t care. “Oh, three bags of potatoes is enough for me.” Now everyone is fighting for productivity. Everyone understood that this was the main income. If she grows 40 bags of potatoes, and 10

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he will sell it on the road... On which, by the way, it is prohibited to sell, we ran into the police here - we argued. I say: “They haven’t given me a salary for three months, her only income is to sell these potatoes here.” - “Let them go to the city.” “Yes, she should go - these potatoes will cost more.” And many have nothing to do with it. And why should she go? To pay tax there? Of course, you can approach this from different positions, and that there could be an emergency on the road... In short, the police don’t like what they’re selling here. It is believed that this creates an emergency situation on the road. This didn’t exist before; they didn’t sell it. Previously, there was stability and no one came - who needs to sell this bucket for three rubles? And there was no such trade. And now there is no pension or salary, so people are forced to go on the road to sell what you grew: potatoes, cabbage, carrots. They live off their subsidiary plot.

...We have a special order on how we can receive tax from those who trade in the village. For trucks - 10 thousand, for cars - 7 thousand per place. Just like that from the tray - 5 thousand per place. We issue them receipts as required. This is who comes to us - not a single trade has refused to pay, and they trade legally. Because of this, they run to me when the “rich” begin to tax them. If these are local “rich” people, then by the time I arrive, there’s already no trace of them, but I also can’t stand near the car while they’re trading. It turns out that trade is offended by me. But I don’t know who the “rich” are who prevented them from trading. Of course, we wrote down several numbers here and sorted them out. Now, lately, they haven’t been running much. The “rich” have probably calmed down a little.

This is how people live, they steal. There are plenty of homeless people. Privatization led not only to positive, but mostly, probably, to negative results. All these people who cannot give up alcohol, they privatized immediately when there was total, general privatization, and now they are selling their apartments. They believe that they sold, received 15 million and are now well off

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Dembo-Rubinstein technique

Methodology by T. Dembo in the version of S. Ya. Rubinstein. Designed to identify self-esteem and awareness of the disease in adults and children. Equipment: sheet of paper, pencil. Instructions: Conducted in the form of a free conversation. The experimenter draws a long vertical line on a blank sheet of paper and says to the patient: “Suppose all the people of the whole world are located on this line: here at the top (show) are the healthiest, and here at the bottom (show) are the sickest. Where do you think you rank among all these people in terms of health? Put a mark with this pencil - a line in the place where you think you are.” (The patient is given a pencil to mark.) The instructions can be explained and repeated, but the patient’s decision should not be discussed yet. Then, next to the first line, another similar vertical line is drawn and a similar task is proposed: “If you arrange all the people on this line according to their intelligence, let the smartest (talented) be at the top, the dumbest at the bottom, and the average in the middle. Where would you place yourself? (The patient is asked to mark his place with a colored pencil.) On the third line, people are arranged in the same way by character: “At the top let there be the best people, at the bottom the worst people in character.” (Again, the patient is asked to mark his place.) The last, fourth, line represents the distribution of all people “according to happiness” - the happiest at the top, the unhappy at the bottom. (The patient is asked to mark his place on this fourth line with a colored pencil.) Depending on where the patient put the line, he is asked which people he would consider unhappy (or happy). One can also raise the question of what the patient lacks for complete happiness, what he understands by happiness, what it depends on. Then the experimenter talks with the patient in the same way regarding the first three indicators. So, if a patient classifies himself as one of the healthiest people, he is asked about which people he would classify as the sickest, and if he puts his mark between healthy and average, they are asked about what he lacks in order to consider himself completely healthy . The discussion of the patient's self-esteem in terms of intelligence is somewhat more careful in form - they ask what qualities of his mind the patient is dissatisfied with, which people he considers the smartest, which ones the stupidest. The character assessment survey is conducted to find out which character traits the patient considers to be the worst and which are the best, and what he sees as his own character flaws. Protocol: Answers are recorded on the topics “Health”, “Mind”, “Character”, “Happiness”. Interpretation:

• Mentally healthy adults and adolescents, regardless of their self-esteem and objective life situation, show a purely positional tendency towards the point “just above the middle.”
• With various mental illnesses, self-esteem marks tend to be at the extremes of the line.
• In the process of completing the task, the following may be revealed: depressive self-esteem, euphoria.

Features of the Dembo-Rubinstein method in children: The first vertical line represents an assessment of height in relation to the class in which the child is studying. This is done in order to better explain the instructions to children. Then follow the assessment lines for health and intelligence (all of humanity is located on the line). When assessing intelligence, the child is asked to mark on the same line the place of his desk neighbor and the place of his teacher (or teacher). The last two marks should be made with different colored pencils so that they cannot be confused in the future. Evaluation of character and happiness is given only in comparison with students in one's class. After all the colored lines have been placed on all the lines, a conversation with the child begins, the purpose of which is to find out the child’s considerations in this or that assessment in the same way as described in the conversation with adults. This simple experimental technique makes it possible to identify children’s self-esteem, which can be considered as one of the indicators of the maturity of their personality.

Method for studying the level of aspirations

Diagnostics are intended to study personal reactions. It was developed by the German psychologist F. Hoppe. Equipment. To conduct the experiment, you should prepare 16 cards with numbers from 1 to 16 written on them. In addition, you need to prepare a stopwatch or watch, a sheet of paper and a pencil for the patient. The experimenter should have a sheet of paper with sets of different tasks in front of him. The essence of the experiment is as follows. The patient is offered a number of tasks, numbered according to the degree of difficulty from easy to most difficult, and is given the opportunity to choose the task to solve each time. The experimenter must be able to create a situation of success at his own discretion (and not necessarily deservedly so). The actual achievements of the patient in this experiment do not matter, but the patient does not know; on the contrary, he must be convinced of the opposite. The only important thing is how the patient reacts to his success or failure, what kind of tasks he chooses in terms of difficulty after experiencing success or failure. It should be emphasized that tasks should objectively vary in degree of difficulty for each patient - from extremely easy to extremely difficult. Interpretation. For mentally complete, personally adequate people, the choice of the next task numbers depends on successes or failures in previous decisions. In other words, achievements and successful decisions create in people some confidence in their capabilities and lead to a gradual increase in self-esteem and level of aspirations, that is, to the choice of more difficult tasks, and failures, unsuccessful attempts to solve difficult problems lead to a decrease in the level of aspirations, that is, to choosing easier tasks. Fluctuations in choice (the transition to easy tasks after failures and vice versa) in people with a stable character are more or less smooth, mild, but with the emotional instability of psychopaths these fluctuations are very sharp.

Literature: 1. Zeigarnik, B.V. Pathopsychology: a textbook for students. universities / B.V. Zeigarnik. – M.: Academy, 2000. – P. 147–152. 2. Kozhukhovskaya, I.I. Impaired criticality in mentally ill patients. / I.I. Kozhukhovskaya. – M.: MSU, 1985. – 80 p. 3. Meshcheryakova, K.V. Features of experimental psychological research of criticality disorders during forensic psychological examination. / K.V. Meshcheryakova, A.Yu. Ryazanova // Bulletin of SUSU, Psychology Series, 2008, issue 3. – No. 3 – p. 67 –70 4. Meshcheryakova, K.V. Psychodiagnostic criteria for disorders of criticality of adolescents during forensic psychiatric and forensic psychological examination. / K.V.Meshcheryakova, A.Yu.Ryazanova // Bulletin of SUSU, Psychology Series, 2010, – No. 4 – p. 77 –81. 5. Rubinstein, S.Ya. Experimental methods of pathopsychology. / S.Ya. Rubinstein – M.: EKSMO-Press, 1999. – P. 153–166. Source: Berebin M.A. Workshop on pathopsychology: textbook / A.Yu. Ryazanov. – Chelyabinsk: SUSU Publishing Center, 2022. – 131 p.

Interpretations in literature

Phraseologisms, polysemantic words, epithets, metaphors and other means of artistic expression of language can make it difficult to understand literary works. The same word can be interpreted in different ways (especially if it has changed its lexical meaning over time).

For example, now the word “factor” is understood as the driving force of a process. But in the 19th century texts it was about a printing house worker: “The factor explained their gaiety by admitting to him that the typesetters were dying of laughter typing Gogol’s book.” Now such a text would cause bewilderment: how can a factor explain something?

Works of art in a foreign language need interpretation . Often translations by different authors differ from each other and do not always accurately reflect the idea contained in the original. Differences arise not only due to the individual or professional qualities of the translator, but also due to unaccounted for national characteristics, regional aspects of the language characteristic of a particular area.

Goethe's poem “The Traveler's Night Song” has been translated into 130 languages. It was translated into Russian by Lermontov, Bryusov, Annensky and Pasternak. Each translation has its own characteristics. No translation is alike.

The correct interpretation of a text can be called an art . A striking example of real mastery is the translations of Shakespeare's sonnets by S. Marshak and B. Pasternak.

The same sonnet is translated differently by writers, and some researchers note that their translation turned out to be more imaginative than the original texts, thanks to the lexical richness of the Russian language.

What can be interpreted in music

In the art of music, interpretation means the process of transforming a score (notation) into a work that reflects the individual consciousness of the performer. How it turns out depends on the skill, personal qualities of the musician and his affiliation with any musical direction.

The essence of interpretation in music was accurately expressed by composer A.N. Serov: “The great secret of great performers is that they illuminate what they perform with the power of their talent from within, putting into it a whole world of sensations from their own soul.”

Every significant piece performed by a talented musician introduces changes to the composer’s original idea. With the same musical text, performance options can differ markedly from one musician to another, or even from one person to another at different times.

One of the best interpreters of violin music, L. Auer, wrote: “There is no precisely established way for an artist to perform a piece of music. The performer's duty is to penetrate into the spirit of the composition and reveal the composer's intentions."

Ebbinghaus test

The Ebbinghaus test is designed to identify critical thinking; research of the relationship between the experimenter's assessment and the influence of this assessment on the critical attitude of patients towards their mistakes. Equipment: text with missing words. 1) Grandfather became very old. His legs are not ______________________________. Eyes are not _________________________, ears are not _________________________. There are no teeth. And when he ate, his blood flowed from _________________________. The son and daughter-in-law stopped putting him behind _____________________ and gave him __________________ behind the stove. Once they brought it down for him to have lunch at ________________, he wanted to move it, but he dropped it on ____________________________, the cup and ____________. They began to ______________ scold the old man because he spoils everything for them and ____________________.

2) Snow_____________________ hung low over the city. In the evening _____________________ began. The snow fell in large _________________________. The cold wind howled like __________________, wild___________________________. At the end of the deserted and deaf ______________________, some old woman suddenly appeared. She moved slowly and with ___________________________________________________ across ______________________________. She was thin and poor_________________. She moved forward slowly, her felt boots made her go slowly. She was wearing a bad _______________________ with narrow sleeves, and ____________ on her shoulders. Suddenly the woman __________________________ and leaned over and started doing something ________________________________ under her feet. Finally, she stood on _________________________ and with her __________________________ hands, blue from ___________________, began ___________________________ along the snowdrift.

3) If they want to go, they go to ___________________. First, in __________________, they buy themselves __________________. Already ready_____________________ with long ___________________ cars. They quickly enter and _______________________ seats. Slowly they begin to spin_____________________. The train is _______________, the rest are waving _________________________________.

Protocol: It is not necessary to maintain a separate protocol. Instructions: 1. “Fill in each blank with a word.” 2. After filling out the text, regardless of the presence or absence of gross errors in it: “You made a mistake. Do this task again, but now be more careful, try to correct your mistake.” Interpretation. 1) Healthy subjects easily navigate an unfamiliar text; after reading 2–3 sentences, they understand that they are dealing with a story that is related in meaning. Sometimes there are errors in difficult places in the text, which are corrected when you fill them out again. When filling in again, write the same words or replace them with synonyms. 2) Patients with organic brain damage are less able to navigate the text, make mistakes more often, and work more slowly. After critical comments from the experimenter, errors are corrected, but they work even more slowly. 3) Patients with schizophrenia, when filling out the text for the first time, make gross mistakes, do not correlate the inserted words with sentences (and not just the text itself), and show indifference in case of difficulties. After critical comments and additional instructions, nothing is corrected; re-filling the text is no different from the first.

In painting

Works of painting are always considered as a subject of interpretation. It is necessary to take into account the difference between two pictures of the world - the artist and the contemplator:

1. the first draws a work based on the reality around him, his worldview and feelings;
2. the second can only guess what the author wanted to say with his painting, whether his perception (what is it?) corresponds to the artist’s idea.

The works of abstract artists (W. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, P. Picasso) perhaps need this most of all.

When painting in this style, the master uses a visual language of shapes, lines, contours and colors to interpret the subject. This is very different from traditional painting styles, in which objects are interpreted closer to generally accepted ideas.

Ig G - interpretation of the test for antibodies to coronavirus

To determine class G immunoglobulins in the blood, a qualitative and quantitative method for determining antibodies is used. Below is a table with a breakdown of the enzyme immunoassay for coronavirus (igG indicator for coronavirus).

Coronavirus antibody index - transcript of captions

Class G antibodies to coronavirus - interpretation of results

An antibody titer to coronavirus of 1,800 (positive result) is normal. In this case, immunoglobulins of class A and M should be absent in the blood. Their presence indicates the stage of recovery.

Decoding the results of the test for antibodies to coronavirus

How to decipher a qualitative coronavirus antibody test

Antibodies to coronavirus - table with interpretation of results

In the 2nd and 4th version

(if there are suspicious symptoms), it is recommended to take a PCR test for coronavirus to identify the pest.

The complete absence of immunoglobulins may also mean that:

1) The preparation conditions were not met and the result was distorted

2) The symptoms of influenza or ARVI were similar to the symptoms of coronavirus,

3) The patient suffered a mild form of the disease and did not develop antibodies.

4) The patient suffered a severe form of the disease, and the antibodies quickly disappeared.