Psychological diagnostics (psychodiagnostics) is the science of methods for measuring, classifying and ranking the psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of people, as well as the use of these methods for practical purposes. Psychological diagnostics is an applied branch of psychology, the main purpose of which is the purposeful and detailed study of the personality in all the diversity of its individual mental manifestations in various life situations and operating conditions.
Psychodiagnostics is based on knowledge of the laws of general, differential and experimental psychology, the nature and structure of the psychological phenomena being studied, as well as knowledge of the laws of the psychological research process, including the characteristics of psychodiagnostic tools, socio-communicative and ethical aspects of the interaction between the psychologist and the subject.
Standardized and qualitative methods
The first division of psychodiagnostic methods that we will talk about concerns the content part. Based on it, psychodiagnostic methods are divided into:
- Standardized methods
- Clinical methods
Standardized psychodiagnostic methods are considered the most effective if it is necessary to obtain data on a group of people in a short time, and also to make any specific decision based on a quantitative justification of reliability. Standardized methods are protected from various types of errors that may arise due to the low qualifications of the specialist implementing the methods.
Qualitative methods of psychodiagnostics are more effective if they are used by experienced psychologists, for example, specialists in personnel recruitment or professional selection, etc. Through qualitative methods, it is possible to study the personal characteristics of people with greater accuracy and depth, but they require a significantly larger amount of time for their implementation. Among other things, professional psychodiagnosticians agree that qualitative methods can be even more effective if a psychologist conducts psychological training, psychotherapy or psychological correction with a person, based on the results of using the method.
The essence and features of psychodiagnostics
Psychological diagnostics as a branch of psychological knowledge is used to measure, evaluate and analyze the individual psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of people. It is necessary to determine the differences between groups of people who are united on some basis.
The functions of psychodiagnostics are performed to solve practical problems, united through the concept of “making a psychological diagnosis.” The concept means “recognition”, “detection”.
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In accordance with modern general scientific understanding, “psychodiagnostics” is the recognition of the state of a certain object by quickly recording its essential parameters. Subsequently, they must be assigned to a certain diagnostic category and subject to predicting behavior and making decisions about the possibilities of influencing the identified behavior in the desired direction.
The modern understanding of “psychodiagnostics” is closely related to the concept of “psychological testing”, but is not completely reduced to it. In addition to test methods, expert (clinical) psychodiagnostic methods are also distinguished.
Low-formalized and highly formalized methods
In psychodiagnostics, methods are also distinguished based on how formalized they are. Thus, two groups of methods are distinguished:
- Less formalized methods
- Highly formalized methods
The group of less formalized methods includes those that realize the potential of general methods of psychological diagnostics of a person. Among them are analysis of performance results, diagnostic conversation, observation, etc. The use of such methods requires a highly qualified specialist, because in most cases, these methods lack standards for implementation and interpretation of results.
Among highly formalized methods, various forms of testing and surveys are distinguished. They are distinguished by many characteristics, for example, strict regulations for conducting, processing and interpreting results, a high degree of reliability, etc. For this reason, the diagnostic procedure is structured so that none of the subjects has any advantages over the others.
Requirements for psychodiagnostic methods
Psychodiagnostic methods must meet the following requirements :
- Standardization of the procedure for conducting and processing research results, which is based on the concept of a norm, since an individual assessment, for example, the success of completing a particular task, can only be obtained by comparison with the results of other subjects.
- The reliability of a psychological method (methodology) allows it to be characterized in terms of the stability of the results obtained by repeated use of this method under similar conditions (test-retest reliability) or by using interchangeable, equivalent forms of the method.
- Validity is a concept that shows how well a psychological method really measures what it is supposed to study and measure, and how well it performs this task. If reliability shows that the results of a study are close to the truth, then validity shows that the results really relate to the phenomenon that the researcher is studying.
- Strict regulation of the examination procedure (exact adherence to instructions, strictly defined methods of presenting stimulus material, non-interference by the researcher in the activities of the subject, etc.).
- The task facing the psychodiagnostic method is not limited to the qualification of the phenomenon being studied; its interpretation .
Test and survey methods
The two types of methods we consider below belong to highly formalized methods. The most popular among them are test methods, the main one of which is testing, which involves solving standardized tasks, the purpose of which is to determine quantitative (in some cases, qualitative) characteristics that describe the psychological characteristics of an individual according to given parameters. In terms of content, test methods are divided into a number of groups:
- Personality tests
- Achievement tests
- Aptitude tests
- Intelligence tests
With the help of such tests, it becomes possible to give an objective assessment of the level of development of a person’s personal characteristics, which can be attributed to mental processes and formations.
Survey methods are used in psychodiagnostics to determine the level of development of a person’s mental properties. These techniques take the form of surveys aimed at studying the psychological characteristics of the subjects’ personal sphere. The assessment is given after interpreting the answers that the test takers give to the questions posed (as a rule, several answer options are offered).
In practice, among psychodiagnostic specialists, it is common to use methods that include both test and survey tasks. Such methods are called test-survey.
Applied Research
The goal of applied research is to obtain practical results in specific life situations. Such studies are carried out, as a rule, upon request from interested parties. The final result contains formulated recommendations, the implementation of which should lead to the expected effect. These studies apply theoretical and empirical knowledge, developed and tested scientific methods and techniques.
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Methods by form of implementation
Methods of psychodiagnostics can also differ in the form of implementation - they can be individual, group, form (written), oral, machine (hardware), computer, as well as verbal and non-verbal. At the same time, they all consist of several components, namely:
- Operation Guides
- Stimulus (test) material
- Answer registration sheet
- Key for processing responses
- Interpretive material for interpreting the results
If one person undergoes a psychodiagnostic procedure, it is called individual , and if there are several people, then it is called group . Both the individual and group methods have their pros and cons.
For example, group methods make it possible to study the characteristics of a large number of people, have more uniform implementation conditions, and also simplify the work of a specialist and require less time to obtain results. However, the disadvantages include the reduced ability to establish contact and understanding with the subjects and the formation of positive motivation in them regarding diagnosing the sphere of their personality. At the same time, individual methods do not have such disadvantages, but they only allow you to work with individual people.
Almost all methods of psychodiagnostics that are used in our time are written (form) , i.e. have the form of written tasks, to complete which it is enough to provide the people being studied with answer sheets and writing materials. But oral methods continue to be used today, albeit somewhat less frequently. In the process of conducting oral psychodiagnosis, the researcher asks questions, and the subject answers them.
Machine (hardware) methods of psychodiagnostics involve the use of special technical means (special machines and other diagnostic equipment) that operate on a mechanical principle to record responses and interpret data. If a computer method is used, for example, a computer survey or testing, then the processing of the received information is greatly simplified, as is their interpretation, because all data is in the form of tables, diagrams, diagrams, graphs, etc.
It is also important to note that computer psychodiagnostics allows you to analyze the data obtained in the shortest possible time, which would be impossible if other methods were used, because they require considerable time. For this reason, specialists have the opportunity to diagnose at a deep level the individual characteristics of people’s thinking, determine the tempo and other characteristics of their activity.
In the case of using verbal methods of psychodiagnostics, the researcher and the subject interact in a verbalized (verbal-logical) form. When nonverbal methods are used, the stimulus (test) material takes the form of graphic images, drawings, pictures, etc.
Research methods in psychology
Research methods in psychology are briefly described as techniques through which reliable knowledge is obtained to create concepts and test theories. Through certain norms and techniques, the most effective way of practical application of knowledge in the field of psychology is ensured.
A general characteristic of the psychological methods used in the study is that they are divided into four groups: organizational, empirical, methods of correction and data processing.
Organizational basic methods of psychology:
— comparative genetic: comparison of different types of groups according to certain psychological criteria. It gained the greatest popularity in animal psychology and child psychology. The evolutionary method, formed in line with the comparative one, consists in comparing the mental development of an animal with the developmental features of individuals located at previous and subsequent levels of animal evolution;
— the cross-sectional method is a comparison of characteristics of interest from different groups (for example, a study of the psychological characteristics of children of different ages, with different levels of development, different personality traits and clinical reactions);
- longitudinal - repetition of the study of the same subjects over a long period of time;
- complex - representatives of different sciences participate in the research, studying one object in different ways. In a complex method, it is possible to find connections and dependencies between different phenomena (mental and physiological phenomena, social and psychological).
The cross-sectional method in psychology has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of cross-sections is the speed of the study, that is, the ability to obtain results in a fairly short time. Despite the great advantage of this type of research methods in psychology, it is impossible to demonstrate the dynamics of the development process with its help. Most results on development patterns are very approximate. Compared to the cross-sectional method, the longitudinal method has many advantages.
Longitudinal methods of research in psychology help to process data in individual age periods. With their help, you can establish the dynamics of the child’s individual development. Thanks to longitudinal methods of psychological research, it is possible to identify and resolve the issue of age-related crises in human development. A significant disadvantage of longitudinal research is that it requires a large amount of time to organize and conduct.
Empirical methods are the main methods of psychology in research, since it separated into a separate science:
— objective observation (external) and self-observation (internal);
— analysis of activity products;
— experimental (natural, formative, laboratory) and psychodiagnostic (questionnaires, tests, questionnaires, interviews, sociometry, conversation) methods.
Introspective psychology considered introspection to be the main way of knowledge in psychology.
In the process of objective observation, the researcher becomes aware of the individual motives, experiences and sensations of the subject, the researcher directs him to perform appropriate actions, actions, so that, in this way, he observes the patterns of mental processes.
The observation method is used when the least interference in natural behavior and interpersonal relationships of people is necessary, in the case of a desire to obtain a holistic picture of everything that is happening. In psychology, observation must be carried out using objective methods.
Scientific observation is directly related to ordinary life observation. That is why, first of all, it is desirable to create the basic conditions that satisfy observation so that it becomes a scientific method.
One of the requirements is the presence of a clear purpose of the study. According to the goal, it is necessary to define a plan. In observation, as in the scientific method, the most essential features are planning and systematicity. If observation comes from a well-understood purpose, then it must take on a selective and partial character.
Correction methods: auto-training and group training, education, psychotherapeutic influence.
Data processing methods: statistical (quantitative) and differentiation of material into groups (qualitative).
Projective methods
They are characterized by a global approach to personality assessment. The subjects are asked to complete sentences, interpret pictures, and more. There are no wrong or right answers in this group of techniques; the range of solutions is quite wide. Personality is assessed by its “projection” in the answers.
Every science has its own diagnostic and research methods, and psychology is no exception. New methods are being studied and developed, and researchers are combining existing ones. All this in order to comprehensively study the object of interest and delve into such a complex system as a person.
Observation
The observation method is used in several variants.
External observation collects data about a person's psychology and behavior through direct observation from an outsider.
Internal observation is used by a research psychologist when he wants to study a phenomenon in the form in which it is presented in his mind.
In free observation, you can change the subjects and objects of observation, its nature in the process of observation.
Standardized observation implies the presence of a predetermined and clearly limited subject of observation. It is carried out according to a certain program, regardless of what happens during the observation process with the object or the observer.
With participant observation, the researcher is a direct participant in the process he is observing.
Third-party observation does not imply the personal participation of the observer in the process being studied.
Tests
Using tests, you can obtain a quantitative or qualitative accurate description of the phenomenon being studied. Tests require a clearly organized procedure for collecting and processing data and the originality of their interpretation.
The test survey is based on questions that are thoughtful and carefully selected for validity and reliability, the answers to which can be used to characterize the psychological qualities of the subjects.
The test task makes it possible to assess the psychology and behavior of a person based on his actions. The basis of projective tests is the mechanism of projection, in which a person attributes unconscious personal qualities to other people. Projective tests are a good way to study the psychological and behavioral characteristics of people that cause a negative attitude.
Survey
A survey requires a person to answer a series of questions. There are several survey options.
Oral questioning is used when it is necessary to observe the reactions and behavior of the person answering the questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology, but it requires special training and a lot of time to conduct the research.
A written survey allows you to reach a larger audience. A common form of written survey is a questionnaire. But when using a questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account the response of the respondent to the content of the questions indicated in it and change them.
A free survey is a type of oral and written survey in which questions and answers are not limited in advance to certain limits. A survey of this type makes it possible to flexibly change research tactics, the content of questions and obtain non-standard answers to them. But at the same time, a standardized survey is more economical in time and material costs than a free survey.
