Defense mechanisms according to Freud with examples. Psychology books worth reading

Defense mechanisms are forms of mental defense that protect a person from strong experiences and traumatic events, and associated anxiety.

These are peculiar adaptation mechanisms that allow the inner self to regulate the impact of the environment and society, transferring negative experiences to the area of ​​the unconscious.

This behavior helps a person relieve oppressive anxiety that arises in response to problems that he cannot solve. This could be the loss of a loved one, loss of self-esteem, or traumatic memories.

It is natural that most of these mechanisms are formed in childhood, when the child really cannot solve his problems in another, rational way. And there is even a positive side to this - the psyche stabilizes and becomes less vulnerable to negative experiences. However, over time, protection becomes an obstacle to development and personal growth; a person moves more and more away from reality, loses the objectivity of judgment, and engages in self-deception.

Characteristics common to all defense mechanisms:

• the action occurs on an unconscious level and is automatic;
• the result is a distorted perception of reality.

Definition of the concept

Defense mechanisms are one of the most important concepts of psychoanalysis, which are ways of self-defense (namely, protecting one’s “I”), regulating negative impulses that emanate from a person’s consciousness. This happens under the influence of social rules and norms, which, one way or another, put pressure on the individual. The defense mechanism is designed to protect a person from possible experiences and anxieties that are caused by the discrepancy between social views and a person’s personal views. This term was first coined in 1894 by the famous psychologist Sigmund Freud.

Conditions that trigger protection

The mechanisms of psychological defense of the individual are not formed at the level of the main regulator of human behavior - consciousness. Freud scientifically substantiated the existence of a deep level of the unconscious, filled with aspirations, drives and desires.

Freud realized that unconscious experiences significantly influence a person’s life and behavior, and also become the cause of neuropsychiatric diseases.

To understand the nature of the emergence of defense mechanisms, it is necessary to determine the structure of the human psyche:

• Id (“It”). Innate human aspirations, instinctive and irrational impulses of the psyche.
• Superego (“Super-ego”). The highest system of human values, acquired by him in the process of mastering the rules of behavior and social norms
• Ego (“I”). The part of the personality responsible for making decisions appears only as a result of the conflict between the Id and the Superego.

According to this theory, the Ego (“I”) tries to control the impulses of the “It.” At the same time, the Ego tries to come to terms with the Superego and its norms and taboos. The main conflict occurs between innate aspirations (Id) and the higher value system (Superego).

The ego reduces anxiety by working by channeling negative impulses into behavior that is positive and socially satisfying. In this, a person is helped by mental defenses, which vary depending on the situation and the severity of internal personal contradictions.

Basic properties of defense mechanisms

Defense mechanisms according to Freud have a number of features. It is worth familiarizing yourself with examples from real life in order to understand the nature of this phenomenon. Thus, protective mechanisms have the following properties:

• are a kind of self-deception, as they manifest themselves on an unconscious level;
• distort the perception of reality, which can be even more dangerous for a person than a real threat;
• represent the emotional side of the reaction to surrounding events;
• may arise based on the fear that negative impulses will become conscious.

crowding out

Considering Freud's defense mechanisms, first of all it is worth noting repression. This is a kind of basis with the help of which more complex mechanisms can subsequently be formed. Repression is the “forgetting” or “removing” from consciousness of those feelings and thoughts that cause psychological discomfort. At the same time, events that preceded the injury may disappear from memory.

It is worth noting that repression is not absolute. There is always a risk that memories of unpleasant events will burst out, and therefore you have to spend a huge amount of energy to suppress them. This can negatively affect a person's personal development. Moreover, even if the repression mechanism has worked, the stimulus may appear again in a dream or slip through in slips of the tongue.

Defense mechanisms according to Freud are reflected in real life. So, for example, a decent husband, due to his moral principles, does not allow the possibility of cheating on his wife. He does his best to repress such thoughts and fantasies. Nevertheless, it is possible that in a dream he takes part in pleasures with a stranger.

Projection

In stressful situations, defense mechanisms almost always come into play. According to Freud, projection comes in second place. Its meaning is that the individual tries to transfer his thoughts, feelings and life circumstances to other people. Thus, he relieves himself of all blame and responsibility for his own failures and troubles. An example would be a student or student who has not prepared for an exam. He tries to justify his bad grade by a biased attitude on the part of the teacher. If we talk about athletes, they often blame the poor quality of sports equipment, the playing field or dishonest refereeing for their defeat.

Fantasizing.

Fantasizing is avoiding problems through fantasy, isolating oneself from reality: from daydreaming to reading literature and watching porn. We use it to transport ourselves from a world that threatens us in order to find comfort elsewhere.

Preview: Sigmund Freud in his office in Vienna with his daughter Anna, 1937. The photograph was taken by Princess Eugenie of Greece, daughter of Marie Bonaparte.

See also:

• Carl Jung: Tarot cards as a path to the unconscious
• Sigmund Freud Speaks: The Only Recording of the Voice of the Founder of Psychoanalysis (1938)
• “Imperfection is the only thing that makes us unique.” Brene Brown on shame and vulnerability
• Video interview with Carl Jung: why it is necessary to study the psyche, what a person cannot put up with and where is the source of evil

July 6, 2018

Substitution

When considering examples of psychological defenses, one cannot ignore substitution. Its mechanism is to redirect attention from the threatening object to another object. The most striking example of this mechanism is a child punished by his parents for a prank. Unable to answer them, he takes out his anger on his younger brother or sister by kicking him or breaking toys.

The replacement reaction is characteristic not only of children, but also of many adults. For example, employees are often attacked and criticized by management. The fear of losing their job stops them from responding to their bosses. However, when they come home, they can take out their aggression on their family members.

It is worth noting that some individuals implement the replacement mechanism in a very unique way. Being weak by nature, they cannot take out their aggression on a stranger, and therefore begin to suppress themselves. As a result, a person suppresses himself emotionally, engaging in self-criticism and self-flagellation.

Identification with the aggressor

When a person is afraid of someone, subconsciously he may strive to be like his offender - the aggressor.

One clear example is Stockholm syndrome and its effect on humans. In 1974, Patricia Hearst was kidnapped - the victim ended up in the hands of an American terrorist group. After suffering physical and psychological violence, Patricia became a member of the gang and even committed a robbery with them, and voluntarily. Of course, in court she was acquitted, as they recognized that Patricia suffered from Stockholm syndrome.

Rationalization

Psychological defense as a way of overcoming stress can manifest itself in the form of rationalization. This is a deliberate distortion of reality in order to maintain a high level of self-esteem. There is a complex system of argumentation that is designed to justify irrational behavior. One of the most striking examples of such a mechanism can be found in Aesop's fables. He describes a fox who cannot reach the branch with grapes. To justify her failure, she claims that the fruits are not yet ripe.

Similar examples can be found in everyday life. For example, a woman does not always reciprocate a man’s attention and courtship. Not wanting to accept this fact, a man may convince himself of her unattractiveness or spread damaging rumors. Another situation is related to student life. So, for example, if an applicant fails to enter a certain faculty, he begins to convince himself and those around him that this profession is not at all interesting to him.

Reactive education

Freud's depth psychology also highlights such a mechanism as reactive formation. It is implemented at two levels:

• a negative or unacceptable impulse is suppressed;
• At the subconscious level, impulses of opposite content are formed.

Most often, such mechanisms take place in public life. Thus, pronounced sexual desire is considered extremely indecent in society. Thus, a woman who has a similar feature tries in every possible way to suppress it in herself. To earn a positive image in society, she can even act as an ardent fighter for morality and ethics. The same applies to men who strongly oppose homosexual relationships, but themselves secretly have similar inclinations.

Sublimation

Psychological defense mechanisms according to Freud also include sublimation. This mechanism allows a person to change his impulses and views so that they can be expressed in a form that is acceptable in society. In psychology, sublimation is considered as the healthiest and most correct defense mechanism. This is due to the fact that a person does not restrain himself in the manifestation of his impulses, but only changes the form of their presentation.

Freud, given the specifics of his theory, tended to pay special attention to the sublimation of sexual desire. It is with this phenomenon that he links the incredible rise of culture and science that occurred in Western Europe. If we project this mechanism onto modern reality, we can give the example of teenagers who can sublimate their unfulfilled sexual needs into sports achievements.

Despite the fact that many people hide it, quite often you can meet people with sadistic tendencies. Thus, individuals with such deviation may well become successful surgeons. Also, such fantasies can be sublimated into writing detective novels.

Auto-aggression: blaming yourself

Auto-aggression, or turning against oneself, is a very destructive defense mechanism. It is often characteristic of children experiencing difficult moments in their relationships with their parents. A person may have a hard time accepting that their parent is being dismissive or aggressive towards them, and instead assume that they are the bad ones. Self-blame, self-deprecation, self-harm, self-destruction through drugs or alcohol, and overindulgence in the dangerous aspects of extreme sports are all results of this mechanism.

Auto-aggression occurs most often when our survival or well-being depends on the external object that caused its appearance. But despite the many negative consequences of this process, from an emotional point of view it can be better tolerated than aggression directed at the original target: a parent, guardian or other important figure.

Negation

Personal defense mechanisms according to Freud include such an element as denial. It consists in the fact that a person categorically refuses to acknowledge that a negative event has occurred. The most striking example is the reaction of a child to the death of a beloved pet. He refuses to acknowledge this loss, believing that the animal is still somewhere nearby. A similar example can be given in connection with the loss of a loved one. Refusal to accept the obvious can develop into a religious belief that the relative now lives in heaven or that his spirit is still present in the house.

Often the denial mechanism is triggered when it comes to health. Thus, feeling the symptoms of a particular disease, a person can simply ignore them, telling himself that this cannot happen to him. A similar reaction can be observed to an already confirmed diagnosis.

Regression

This is a rollback to the previous stage of development.

Examples:

1. Instead of calmly talking and solving the problem, the person begins to scream, cry or insult the opponent (childish reaction).
2. A preschool child begins to suck his finger and speak in syllables.
3. An adult girl or an adult man behaves like a teenager.

Psychology books worth reading

Sooner or later, any person begins to be interested in certain mechanisms of the work of the conscious and subconscious. The best way to get acquainted with the work of a psychologist such as Sigmund Freud. Books in which human psychology is best presented are:

• "Introduction to Psychoanalysis" is one of the most famous books, moreover, this work is considered the most significant in all of Freud's activities. Here are the main provisions that had a decisive influence on the further development of not only psychology and medicine, but also fiction.
• “The Interpretation of Dreams” is a monumental work that has become one of the most striking in the twentieth century. Here is the result of Freud's study of the unconscious part of consciousness, which controls human instincts, but is difficult to study. The symbolism of dreams is discussed here, which helps to understand the problems, desires and fears of the individual.
• The Psychopathology of Everyday Life is Freud's second monumental study. The book is relevant to this day, and therefore is key in the study of psychology. The main attention is paid to unconscious motives, which not only can act as incentives, but also often become the cause of psychological disorders.
• “I and It” is a kind of collection of the psychologist’s works, which can be considered the culmination of his work. It not only describes the basic principles of psychoanalysis, but also presents their sources and justifications.
• "Totem and Taboo" is a work in which Freud, drawing on his own research and theories, tries to uncover the problems of genesis. Thus, the author addresses the problem of culture, religion, morality, law and other aspects of social life.
• “Mass Psychology and Analysis of the Human Self” is a work in which Freud carried out fundamental work on the study of crowd behavior. The need of the masses for a leader is also explained.
• “Essays on the Psychology of Sexuality” is a collection in which the psychologist raises the most sensitive topics. From here you can learn about the nature and causes of intimate deviations, a tendency towards perversion, as well as sadism, homosexuality, etc.

It is worth noting that these are not all books on psychology that are worth reading. It is also important to study the work of other specialists who had a slightly different view of things than Freud.

Types and mechanisms of defenses according to Freud, description and characteristics

Mechanisms of psychological defense of the individual offer a unique solution to a person’s interpsychic conflict. The conflict is masked and repressed; Freud believed that the main task of the psychoanalyst in this case is to identify the patient’s psychological defenses from the patient’s symptoms.

In the future, by analyzing them, it will be possible to say what desires and norms of the Superego lie at the heart of the human psyche, which do not allow these desires to be realized. The last stage of working with psychological defenses is to convey to the person’s consciousness the rules and norms dictated by the Superego, not by suggestion, but by communication and understanding.

Mechanisms of psychological defense of the individual - a diagram of what it looks like according to Freud.

In order to independently determine your psychological defenses, it is necessary to study the basic mechanisms of the psyche that allow you to alleviate anxiety and get rid of negative awareness of internal contradictions.

crowding out

Repression is the unconscious “forgetting” of unpleasant facts and unfulfilled needs, replacing them with completely achievable goals. This defense is the most universal way to get rid of internal conflict and consists of actively excluding feelings, desires and impulses from the sphere of consciousness that cause pain, shame or guilt.

The action of this mechanism can explain many cases when a person forgets to perform certain tasks that he absolutely does not want to do or displaces from memory information about any significant dates that remind him of something unpleasant or imply the performance of undesirable actions.

Repression of true but unacceptable experiences can be expressed in an attempt to justify one’s situation by external circumstances. For example, a person may explain his reluctance to engage in work by unfavorable conditions: “I don’t go to work not because I like to idle, but because the political situation interferes with normal professional development.”

Rationalization

Rationalization is a pseudo-reasonable explanation. This defense is an attempt to control negative or unacceptable information for a person through distortion of a fact or the behavior of others (or oneself).

When a person rationalizes, he uses the plasticity of logic and adjusts an event or human behavior to his model of the world (in his direction), while distorting the rational facts of this event.

Regression

Regression is a return to earlier types of behavior (most often associated with childhood), which show early psychological development, infantilization. For example, during a feeling of envy in case of frustration (impossibility of satisfying) a need, intensified by the unpleasant awareness that someone else is satisfying it without hindrance.

A person exhibits a tendency to short-term return to earlier patterns of behavior (lack of control over emotions, categorical demands “I want!”), which in the past ensured the satisfaction of needs.

Some researchers believe that regression is usually perceived as a last line of defense, resorted to when more “adult” defense mechanisms are ineffective.

Projection

Defense consists of attributing one’s own negative experiences and thoughts to another person (other people or even events) in order to justify oneself and protect one’s behavior. Projection often manifests itself in a love relationship with a partner and touches on the topic of jealousy.

For example, a girl may constantly suspect her loved one of cheating, but at the same time admit the idea of ​​flirting or having a relationship with another man. Thus, what a person sees and judges in others may be present in him in the form of aspirations, obsessions or thoughts.

Negation

Denial is a mechanism in which information that worries a person or can lead to internal conflicts ceases to be perceived by him.

An example of denial is an experiment with the opposite effect, when 2 groups of subjects with different views on the same issue were given “refuting” scientific articles that prove the falsity of the views held by the participants in the experiment.

Despite the presence of factual material, the subjects began to deny the scientific nature of what they saw, arguing that they better know the validity of their point of view. The experiment confirmed that the reluctance to admit oneself is wrong and accept information that is unpleasant for oneself often leads to the emergence of a denial mechanism.

Isolation, alienation

The defense mechanism consists in isolating traumatic factors within a person’s consciousness. Due to the suppression of some stress factors or as a result of a traumatic event, a person “disconnects” from his feelings and experiences.

Because of this, he experiences such deviations as:

• derealization (problems with perception, when the patient perceives the world as unreal or distant);
• depersonalization (loss of one’s own “I”, loss of the sense of oneself as a person with mental properties);
• emotional burnout (a condition in which a person constantly feels tired, depressed, physical, moral, mental exhaustion, lack of joy, lack of desire to do anything);
• psychosomatics (the impact of psychological factors (emotions, experiences, feelings) on the appearance of various somatic ailments).

Compensation

The defense mechanism is to reduce feelings of anxiety and dissatisfaction and the appearance of a false feeling that by avoiding unpleasant situations, you can prevent the occurrence of anxiety. Compensation often manifests itself in cases of envy.

The defense mechanism helps to restrain the negative emotions of the subject of envy that arise as a result of an unfavorable outcome for him in social comparison. Compensation is one of the forms of protection against an inferiority complex and is manifested in the varied attempts of the subject of envy to objectively or subjectively improve his situation or find a suitable replacement for the object of his envy.

The compensation mechanism can manifest itself quite differently, for example, in active methods (due to achieving superiority in another area), passive methods (using the speech structure “but I have...”, fantasizing). In any of these cases, only the subjective assessment of the situation changes and thereby some imaginary equality is achieved and anxiety is eliminated.

Overcompensation

Psychological protection allows a person to feel better than others in the presence of any shortcomings.

In this case, attention is focused precisely on the inferior qualities that a person tries to develop in himself enough to prove his worth.

Reactive education

Reaction formation is a defense against forbidden impulses by expressing opposing impulses. Behavior manifests itself in the absence of acceptance of any qualities and motives, which leads to the demonstration in society of behavior completely opposite to these motives.

Split

Splitting, from the point of view of psychoanalysts, is a mechanism of psychological defense that allows the subject to take a non-ambivalent (dual) position in relation to any phenomenon of the external world. The mechanism manifests itself in the inability to combine the conventional “bad” and “good” - some opposite qualities - into a single whole.

Identification

Identification is the modeling of one’s own behavior after the model of another, authoritative person (especially pronounced in demonstrative individuals).

The process of identification is the unconscious association of oneself with:

• another subject;
• group;
• model;
• ideal.

In the process of identification, a person is unconsciously compared with another (the object of identification). Both individuals and groups can act as objects of identification.

The unconscious transference of feelings and qualities inherent in another person (patterns, views on them) is often observed in children, but also manifests itself in people who cannot find any support in their lives other than authority.

Inclusion

Inclusion is a reduction in the significance of a psychotraumatic factor due to a change in the value system into which this factor fits as part of a broader system. In part, inclusion can be called a form of rationalization; it consists of explaining to oneself that some event is not critical in relation to larger-scale problems.

For example, a person has lost his job and initially considers this event tantamount to a severe life blow. However, in the future, a switching mechanism can be triggered in a person’s psyche, which forms the thought “someone is now even worse off than me,” which allows you to look at your problems differently and find the strength to look for a way out of a difficult situation.

Substitution

Substitution is the transfer of an action directed at an inaccessible object to another accessible object. An example of substitution is breaking dishes, taking out anger on other objects. Psychological defense also often manifests itself in family relationships.

For example, a mother hates some character traits in her husband, but takes out her aggression on a child who may in some situation resemble his behavior.

Also, the effect of the psychological mechanism of substitution is manifested in the suppression of anger, irritation, hostility directed at the object of envy, and the choice of another person to take out aggression. When the success (achievement, acquisition) of others causes an envious attitude, the subject, afraid of being caught in this feeling, masks it and shows the opposite emotions (joy, admiration).

However, the entire complex of negative emotions and feelings generated by envy (resentment, irritation or anger) finds an outlet on a “harmless” object (for example, a child and spouse). Aggression and bitterness can also be directed at oneself, expressed in self-flagellation and self-blame, which further wounds an already wounded sense of self-esteem.

Sublimation

The mechanisms of psychological defense of the individual manifest themselves in different ways, depending on the person’s individual internal conflicts. Freud believed that the most effective defense mechanism is sublimation. It is distinguished by the redirection of the energy of drives into socially oriented activities.

From the point of view of psychoanalysis, sublimation is a defense that a person needs to achieve. Thanks to sublimation, a person realizes that he cannot get what he wants, and instead of retreating into other psychological defenses, he tries to direct energy into social and scientific activities.

It is possible to understand sublimation by highlighting the types and aspects of its defense mechanism:

It is also necessary to understand that the mechanism of sublimation does not occur by repressing negation and displacement; the phenomenon is a method of protection without loss of psychic energy, because during the process of sublimation, internal impulses transform into another form of their implementation, that is, nothing is suppressed or blocked.

conclusions

Defense mechanisms according to Freud are a kind of unconscious reaction that is triggered in a stressful situation or in the face of a threat. Regardless of what type of barrier is triggered, in any case, we are talking about a significant expenditure of energy, which has an overwhelming effect on the ego. In addition, the more effective a particular mechanism turns out to be, the more energy it requires, and the more it distorts objective reality.

Given the unconscious nature of defensive reactions, not every person can control them. However, having noticed the effectiveness of a particular barrier, an individual can consciously resort to it in a stressful situation. You should not rely excessively on such a technique, because it can become a very fertile ground for the emergence of psychological problems.