Psychology of social perception

Getting to know one person about another is always accompanied by an emotional assessment of the partner, an attempt to understand his actions, forecasting changes in his behavior and modeling his own behavior. Since at least two people participate in this process and each of them is an active subject, in building an interaction strategy, each must take into account not only the motives and needs of the other, but also his understanding of the partner’s motives and needs. The process of interpersonal perception is also called social perception.

The mechanism of interpersonal perception is the way in which a person interprets and evaluates another. There can be quite a lot of such methods. Today we will look at the basic mechanisms of interpersonal perception: identification, empathy, egocentrism, attraction, reflection, stereotype and causal attribution.

Mechanisms and effects of interpersonal perception

— Where does communication begin? Of course, “at first sight,” that is, communication begins with observing the interlocutor, his appearance, voice, and manner of behavior. Psychologists say in this regard that one person perceives another. Effective communication is impossible without correct perception, assessment and mutual understanding of partners. Now we will talk about what influences our perception of other people, what are the mechanisms of interpersonal perception. Let us analyze how perception effects that arise during communication can cause errors in assessing the person with whom we are communicating.

So, people’s cognition and understanding of others and themselves occurs in accordance with the psychological mechanisms of perception. Let's consider these mechanisms:

1) Identification

is a way of understanding another person through conscious or unconscious likening oneself to another. Identification is the process of almost complete identification of a person with an interlocutor during communication.

(This helps, figuratively speaking, to “get into the shoes” of another person, to feel, understand and experience everything that he feels, understands and experiences).

Examples.

A perception mechanism close to identification is empathy.

This is not a rational understanding of the problems of another person, but the ability to have deep emotional contact and empathy for another person, helping to better understand him and respond to his needs and problems. This perception mechanism is most desirable both in communication with colleagues and in communication with patients.

2) Reflection

- this is the process of logical analysis of the problems, actions and states of the interlocutor, leading to certain generalizations and conclusions about the person. Reflection also means a person’s ability to understand how he is perceived by his communication partner. Examples.

3) Stereotyping

is a way of understanding another person by classifying forms of behavior and interpreting their causes by relating them to already known social patterns. A stereotype is a formed image of a person that we use as a stamp. A stereotype is formed on the basis of a generalization of personal experience and information from books and films. At the same time, knowledge can be not only questionable, but also completely erroneous. Examples.

Meanwhile, the stereotypes formed on the basis of this knowledge are very persistent and popular. So, without hesitation, we talk about the precision of a mathematician, the discipline of a military man. That all businessmen are speculators, and all officials are bureaucrats.

Stereotypical perception is enhanced by good or bad health and mood. So, when you feel unwell, people and events are perceived in a more negative light.

By studying the processes of perception, psychologists have identified typical distortions of ideas about another person. They are called effects.

"Halo effect"

" This effect is manifested in the fact that at the beginning of acquaintance, the general impression of a person leads to an overestimation of unknown qualities: the general favorable impression left by a person leads the subject to positive assessments of those qualities that are not given in perception and therefore not observable. At the same time, a general unfavorable impression gives rise to correspondingly negative evaluations. Thus, the halo prevents one from seeing the actual features and manifestations of the object of perception.

"Projection Effect".

The essence of this effect is manifested in the fact that we tend to attribute our advantages to a pleasant interlocutor, and disadvantages to an unpleasant one.

The effect of “primacy and novelty”

(First and Second Order Effect) This effect appears when we are faced with conflicting information about a person. If we are dealing with a stranger, then we tend to trust more the information that came first. When communicating with a person we know well, we tend to give preference to the information that was received most recently.

— Of course, no one can completely avoid mistakes, but we can understand the peculiarities of perception and, knowing about possible distortions, learn to correct our mistakes.

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Types of empathy

Empathic experiences can be adequate and inadequate. For example, someone else’s grief causes sadness for one, and joy for another.

In addition, empathy can be:

Emotional. It is based on the mechanism of projection and imitation of the effective and motor reactions of the interlocutor.
Cognitive. Based on intellectual processes.
Predicative. Expresses a person’s ability to predict the reactions of an interlocutor in a given situation.

An important form of empathy is empathy – the experience by one individual of feelings, emotions and states experienced by another. This happens through identification with the interlocutor and sympathy for him.

Technology of perception development

Perception creates a picture of reality based on the activity of an entire system of brain analyzers. The process of perception is physiological. Soviet psychologists L. Vygotsky and A. Zaporozhets talk about motor skills and vision as important factors in the development of perception. Eye movement plays an important role in the development of visual perception.

A fixed eye cannot perceive objects as a whole. With kinesthetic perception, connections arise, including space and time. With this type of perception, the reverse process occurs, providing control over the hands, which perform a variety of actions: from micro-movements to modeling.

For a person, the first significant changes in the perception of the world and perceptual actions occur in the first years of life. One of the decisive roles is played by sensory perception; from childhood, the accumulation of ideas about the color palette, shape, properties and size of surrounding objects begins.

Development technologies can be very diverse. Educational games that bring actions to automaticity, for example, comparing quantities through game manipulations, in which new information is learned. Gradually, the comparison of figures turns into visual perception, and the movements of the hands become more complex, and the sense of touch is involved.

Active search actions and the formation of connections between vision, hearing and touch make it possible to perceive complex signals, distinguish them, build connections, recognize and interpret.

Thus, not only is perceptual development important in its own right, but it is also an example of behavioral and neural plasticity—powerful mechanisms that can support developmental changes in many areas, beginning in early life.

Stereotype

This is a very important and quite capacious mechanism of interpersonal perception. A stereotype in the context of interpersonal attraction is the process of forming an opinion about a person based on personal prejudices (stereotypes).

In 1922, to denote ideas associated with inaccuracy and lies, V. Limpan introduced the term “social stereotype.” As a rule, the formation of stable patterns of any social object occurs unnoticed even by the individual himself.

There is an opinion that it is precisely because of poor meaningfulness that stereotypes are firmly entrenched in the form of stable standards and gain power over people. A stereotype arises in conditions of lack of information or is the fruit of a generalization of an individual’s own experience. The experience is often supplemented by information obtained from cinema, literature and other sources.

Thanks to a stereotype, a person can quickly and, as a rule, reliably, simplify the social environment, organize it into certain standards and categories, make it more understandable and predictable. The cognitive basis of stereotyping is formed by processes such as limitation, selection, and categorization of a large flow of social information. As for the motivational basis of this mechanism, it is formed by processes of evaluative popularization in favor of one or another group, which give a person a sense of belonging and security.

Stereotype functions:

Selection of information.
Formation and support of a positive self-image.
Creation and support of a group ideology that justifies and explains the behavior of the group.
Formation and support of a positive image of “We”.

Thus, stereotypes are regulators of social relations. Their main features are: economy of thinking, justification of one’s own behavior, satisfaction of aggressive tendencies, stability and release of group tension.

Mechanisms of social perception

The tools used by social perception ensure the establishment of communication between individuals and consist of the following concepts:

Identification;
Empathy;
Attraction;
Reflection;
Stereotyping;
Causal attribution.

The identification method consists in the fact that the psychologist tries to put himself in the place of the interlocutor. To get to know a person, you need to understand his scale of values, norms of behavior, habits and taste preferences. According to this method of social perception, a person behaves in the way that, in his opinion, his interlocutor might behave.

Empathy is empathy for another person. Copying the emotional mood of the interlocutor. Only by finding an emotional response can you get a correct idea of what is going on in the soul of your interlocutor.

Attraction (attraction) in the concept of social perception is considered as a special form of cognition of a partner with the formation of a stable feeling for him. This understanding may take the form of friendship or love.

Reflection is awareness of oneself in the eyes of the interlocutor. When conducting a conversation, a person seems to see himself from the partner’s side. What the other person thinks about him and what qualities he gives him. Self-knowledge in the concept of social perception is impossible without openness to other people.

Causal attribution from the words “cause” - cause and “attribute” - label. A person is endowed with qualities according to his actions. Social perception determines the following types of causal attribution:

Personal – when the reason comes from the person who committed this or that act;
Objective – if the cause of the action was the object (subject) towards which this or that action was directed;
Circumstantial – the conditions under which a particular act was committed.

In the process of research, according to social perception, patterns were identified that influence the formation of causal attribution. As a rule, a person attributes success only to himself, and failure to others, or to circumstances that, alas, were not in his favor.

When determining the severity of an action directed against a person, the victim ignores objective and detailed causal attribution, taking into account only the personal component. An important role in perception is played by the person’s attitude or information regarding the perceived subject

This was proven by Bodalev's experiment, which showed a photograph of the same person to two different social groups. Some said that before them was a notorious criminal, others identified him as the greatest scientist.

A social stereotype is the perception of an interlocutor based on personal life experience. If a person belongs to any social group, he is perceived as part of a certain community, with all its qualities. A clerk is perceived differently than a plumber. Social perception shares the following types of stereotypes:

Ethnic;
Professional;
Gender;
Age.

When people from different social groups communicate, contradictions may arise, which are smoothed out when solving common problems.

Reflection

When considering the psychological mechanisms of interpersonal perception, one cannot fail to mention reflection. Reflection is a person’s awareness of how he is evaluated and perceived by other individuals. That is, this is a person’s idea of what his interlocutor thinks of him. This element of social cognition, on the one hand, means a person’s knowledge of his interlocutor through what he thinks about him, and on the other hand, knowledge of himself through this. Thus, the wider an individual's social circle, the more ideas about how others perceive him, and the more a person knows about himself and others.

Types and levels of communication.

The following types of communication are distinguished:

A) Intrapersonal communication

. This is a person’s internal dialogue with himself, thinking about problems, various issues, analyzing situations, making plans, etc.

B) Interpersonal communication

. This is communication between two or more people. Includes all the variety of forms and styles of communication.

B) Social communication

. This is communication between a person and a group of people, a team, or a large audience.

— You have observed more than once that in different life situations you face different goals and your different personal qualities are revealed. Depending on the situation, you choose one or another style (level) of communication.

The following levels (styles) of communication are distinguished:

A) Primitive level

At this level of communication, the other person is assessed from the point of view of need or unnecessaryness, usefulness or uselessness. When it is “necessary” or “useful,” they come into contact with the person; when it is “unnecessary,” they do not enter into contact or rudely push him away if he interferes with the achievement of any goal. In this case, the person is actually used as a thing, since after obtaining the desired result, interest in him, as a rule, quickly disappears (when communicating with a patient, this type of communication is unacceptable).

B) Manipulative level.

This level of communication is close to primitive, since it is also aimed at obtaining some benefit from the interlocutor. At the same time, the true goal is hidden from the person in every possible way. In such communication, a wide variety of methods of psychological influence on and control of a person are actively used. For example: flattery, intimidation, showing affection, deception, “showing off”, etc.

7 pages, 3014 words

Forms of communication between people, expression of feelings and emotions, manifestation of friendship and love

... is the main determining factor in communication between people, representing a set of certain codes formed by the cultural baggage of a given level, facilitating or complicating communication, but always determining ...

This type of communication is also unacceptable during interaction with the patient.

C) Formal role level.

At this level of communication, each participant acts strictly in accordance with his social role and position. It actually does not take into account individual personal qualities, the inner world of a person, his problems, etc. n. This style of communication is permissible only in rare extreme conditions, when the patient needs to provide urgent assistance and there is no opportunity to study his personality.

D) Business (professional) level.

Business communication occurs among people, as a rule, in connection with their participation in a certain joint activity and has the goal of achieving a common result. Therefore, at this level of communication, the individual characteristics of the interlocutor’s personality are taken into account, but the interests of the matter prevail, and even possible differences in views or opinions, as a rule, fade into the background. This style of communication occurs quite often between people.

D) Friendly level.

This level of communication is characterized by maximum openness of people to each other, sincerity, and trust; emotional experience for another person, sympathy for his problems, as well as readiness for mutual support and mutual assistance. This level of communication is acceptable when communicating with colleagues and close friends.

E) Communication at the level of “mask contact”.

This is a level of formal communication in which the interlocutors do not have the need and desire for a deep understanding of the other person, when a set of standard socio-psychological “masks” is used: politeness, compassion, respect, rigor, etc. In this case, the “mask” means a certain set of gestures, facial expressions, words, intonations. All this allows a person, firstly, to hide his true attitude towards his interlocutor; secondly, to protect yourself from the unwanted intrusion of others into your inner world, and thirdly, if necessary, to “smooth out rough edges” in relationships between people.

7 pages, 3353 words

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... the situation would be more suitable for you with gestures of open hands and unbuttoned clothes. Gestures of preening and courtship Research conducted ... in courtship, being the main “litmus test”. Communication with a sexually attractive partner makes the pupils involuntarily... in the functioning of the entire management apparatus, the cultural level of the manager, his style of activity, which should...

G) Secular level

This level is characterized by superficiality and pointlessness. People exchange phrases, words, signs of attention in strict accordance with generally accepted rules in a given society

Methods of influence in the process of communication

Communication includes certain ways in which individuals influence each other; the main ones are infection, suggestion, imitation.

Contagion is an unconscious, involuntary exposure of an individual to certain mental states. Infection acts as a form of spontaneously manifesting internal mechanism of human behavior. The mechanism of socio-psychological infection comes down to the effect of multiple mutual reinforcement of the emotional effects of people communicating with each other.

A special situation in which the impact through infection is enhanced is a situation of panic. Panic arises among a lot of people as a certain emotional state. The immediate cause of panic is the appearance of any news that can cause a kind of shock.

Suggestion is the purposeful, unreasoned influence of one person on another or on a group. With suggestion, an influence is exerted on another, based on the uncritical perception of a message or information. Unlike infection, which is, as a rule, non-verbal in nature (dancing, games, music, emotions, etc.), suggestion, on the contrary, is verbal in nature, that is, carried out through a speech message. Suggestion acts with particular force on impressionable people who, at the same time, do not have a sufficiently developed ability for independent logical thinking, do not have firm life principles and beliefs, and are unsure of themselves. Imitation as a method of influence is manifested in following an example or model through its reproduction. Imitation is of particular importance in the process of human mental development.

Audience effect

A person does the same things differently when alone and in the presence of other people. Moreover, observers can influence both positively and negatively. For example, a person will perform better at work that is familiar to him and perform worse at new assignments when someone else is near him.

Psychologist Robert Zajonc believed that observers cause arousal because their reaction to a person’s actions is unpredictable. When a person does what he knows and knows, it is easier for him to cope with psychological stress and fear of evaluation than if he takes on a completely new unfamiliar task.

Lecture No. 1. Psychology of communication

Man is unthinkable without people.

Goethe

Goal: To study the topic “Communication”. Expand the meaning of the concept of “communication”; consider types and levels of communication. Introduce students to various means of communication, reveal techniques of non-verbal communication

Pay special attention to the mechanisms of interpersonal perception and understanding of people in the process of communication. Give an idea of the main phenomena of interpersonal communication; analyze the reasons leading to distortion of information in the process of people’s perception of each other

Develop skills in interpreting nonverbal means in communication. Develop the ability to better perceive and understand other people in the process of communication.

Plan:

1. The concept of communication.

2. Types and levels of communication.

3. Means of communication.

4. Mechanisms and effects of interpersonal perception.

Empathy

The second mechanism of interpersonal perception is closely related to the first. Empathy is the emotional desire to respond to the problems tormenting another person, to sympathize with him and empathize.

Empathy is also interpreted as:

Comprehension of the states of another individual.
A mental process aimed at identifying the experiences of others.
An action that helps an individual build communication in a special way.
The ability to penetrate the mental state of another person.

The ability for empathy increases when the interlocutors are similar, as well as when the individual gains life experience. The higher the empathy, the more colorful a person imagines the impact of the same event on the lives of different people, and the more aware he is of the fact that there are different views on life.

An individual prone to empathy can be recognized by the following characteristics:

Tolerance for other people's emotions.
The ability to delve into the inner world of your interlocutor without revealing your worldview.
Adapting your worldview to the worldview of another person in order to achieve mutual understanding.

The essence of interpersonal perception

Interpersonal perception is a side of communication that includes the exchange of information and interaction, which is influenced by such factors: the subject’s activity, expectations, intentions, past experience, situation, and more.

Mechanisms of interpersonal perception

The perception of another person allows the personality to shape itself, because during this the relationship of the personality with the opponent occurs. To achieve the goal, long-term joint activity between them is necessary.

The development of self-awareness through the process of analyzing oneself through another is carried out through the following mechanisms:

Reflections are rethinking your actions and feelings.
Causal attribution is the concept of one’s mistakes through the achievements of another.

We are designed in such a way that the process of studying the world around us never ends. New items and technologies appear that need to be analyzed. We meet new people and form a certain opinion about them. The process of introspection and soul-searching continues throughout our lives. We are changing, the structure of the world is changing

All these aspects point to the importance of a correct understanding of everything that surrounds us

I hope this article will be useful to you. If your boss doesn’t like you, then this depends only on the effect of hyper-demandingness, and not on the fact that you have no positive qualities.

Conditions for the effectiveness of interpersonal communication

Item:	Ethics
Kind of work:	Course work
Language:	Russian
Date added:	16.04.2019

This type of work is not a scientific work, it is not a finished final qualifying work!
This type of work is a finished result of processing, structuring and formatting collected information intended for use as a source of material for independent preparation of educational work.

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Introduction:

To create a positive image of an organization, it is necessary to create a favorable environment within the organization, that is, to create a strong corporate culture. That is why organizational leaders and PR specialists are concerned about the effectiveness of interpersonal communication in a corporate environment. This is the relevance of our work.

Communication acts as an interaction of subjects generated by the needs of coexistence. In the process of communication, there is a mutual exchange of types and results of activities, ideas, feelings, relationships, etc. It is communication that organizes society and allows a person to live and develop in it, coordinating his behavior with the actions and behavior of other people.

The object of study in this work is interpersonal communication between promoters.

The subject of this work is to determine the criteria for the effectiveness of interpersonal communications.

The goal is to assess the effectiveness of interpersonal communication in a corporate environment.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

identify the essence and function of interpersonal communication.
determine the features of interpersonal communication in small groups.
identify ways of influence in interpersonal communication.
determine the mechanisms and conditions that ensure the effectiveness of interpersonal communication.
Determine the characteristics of the corporate environment of a quality factory.

Reveal the effectiveness of interpersonal communication in a corporate environment based on the results of a survey among the promoters of a quality factory.

Interpersonal communication theory

The essence and functions of interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication is the process of transmitting information from a specific source to another specific target or to members of an identifiable group. These communications are usually carried out through personal contacts, but they may also be carried out using mail, telephone or other electronic means.

Functions of interpersonal communication:

Informational . Information is like the exchange between people of different types of knowledge and information. In this case, communication plays the role of a mediator and represents the exchange of messages, opinions, ideas, solutions that occurs between communicators. The exchange of information can be carried out both for the sake of achieving some practical goal, solving a problem, and for the sake of the communication process itself, maintaining relationships between people.
Social _ It lies in the formation and development of cultural skills in human relations. This function shapes our opinion, worldview, and reaction to certain events. Thanks to this function, all members of society are ensured of acquiring a certain level of cultural competence, with the help of which their normal existence in this society becomes possible.
Expressive . This means the desire of communication partners to express and understand each other's emotional experiences. So, interpersonal communication always begins with establishing contact between partners. At the same time, it is important not only to provide the information necessary for communication (introduce yourself), choosing stereotypical verbal statements for this, but also to supplement them with non-verbal means (smile, handshake), which should show our disposition (reluctance to get involved. A bad first impression can destroy ambitious plans of partners. The expression of emotions is very important in further communication, when the intended connections between people are strengthened, a kind of joint project is carried out. This is manifested in the expression of feelings, emotions in the process of communication through verbal and non-verbal means. They are associated with the chosen style of verbal communication used nonverbal means of communication.Depending on what method of transmitting feelings and emotions is chosen, the expressive function can significantly strengthen or weaken the informational function of communication.
Pragmatic . This function allows you to regulate the behavior and activities of communication participants and coordinate their joint actions. It can be directed both at yourself and at your partner. In the course of implementing this function, it becomes necessary to resort to both inducing the partner to perform some action and to prohibiting certain actions.
Interpretive . Serves to understand your communication partner, his intentions, relationships, experiences, states. This is due to the fact that various means of communication not only reflect the events of the surrounding reality, but also interpret them in accordance with a certain system of values and political guidelines (i.e. they are assessed from different positions). This function is also used to convey specific activities, assessments, opinions, judgments, etc.

Features of interpersonal communication in small groups

Communication in small groups is also the connection of information with enterprise management systems and the management process as a whole. They can be considered not only as a single whole, covering all management functions, but also for individual functional management work, such as forecasting and planning, accounting and analysis. This allows us to highlight specific points inherent in the information support of functional management, while revealing its general properties, which allows us to direct research in depth.

In modern conditions, an important area has become the effective implementation and use of communication channels, which consists in collecting and processing information necessary for making informed management decisions. The transfer of information about the position and activities of the company to the highest level of management and the mutual exchange of information between all interconnected divisions of the company are carried out on the basis of modern electronic computers and other technical means of communication.

A system of communication channels is a set of physical movements of information that allows you to carry out a process and implement a solution. The most common system of information flows is the sum of information flows that allows an enterprise to carry out financial and economic activities.

Ways of influence in interpersonal communication

It was noted above that interpersonal communication is carried out in various forms, which have their own specificity, determined by the situation of a temporal and spatial nature, the number of participants, their social-role status and communicative attitude. An informal conversation between two communicants - an ideal example of interpersonal communication - is characterized by: frequent change of subject, dominance of one side as more active in terms of initiative and argumentation, change in communicative attitude (conscious and unconscious), vagueness of the discourse structure itself, which allows you to return to previous topics and argumentation, an optional final stage, since the conversation may be interrupted by random circumstances.

More structured forms of interpersonal communication are characterized by a more consistent use of generally accepted norms of communication, not only in terms of the choice of means of communication, but also in the construction of discourse, which involves a certain sequence of statements: introduction, topic of interviews, debates, etc., explaining or expanding previous statements, summarizing or generalizing what has been said, leading away from the problem under discussion either in connection with a transition to another topic or in search of new argumentation. This stereotype of the sequence of utterances can be violated in dialogical discourse, for which improvisation caused by obtaining new or additional information is quite acceptable.

Mechanisms and conditions that ensure the effectiveness of interpersonal communication

The degree of effectiveness of interpersonal communication is determined by the results of updating two main socially significant functions - interaction and influence. These results depend on three main conditions that determine the nature of verbal communication: a) the type of communicative individuals, 6) the perception of semantic and evaluative information, and c) targeted influence on each other. For the effectiveness of interpersonal communication, the most optimal options for these conditions are: a) compatibility of partners as communicative individuals, b) adequate perception of semantic and evaluative information, c) influence through persuasion.

Compatibility of partners as sociable individuals implies compatibility in all three parameters. The presence of communication needs, even with differences in communication attitudes, facilitates the establishment of contact, which is important for the initial stage of communication. Both verbal and nonverbal means can serve as signals for contact. It is very important here that their actualization complies with generally accepted social norms of speech behavior. This greatly facilitates speech interaction. The greatest role here is played by the compatibility of cognitive parameters, which are organized in a certain cognitive space in the form of blocks of identification, reflection, knowledge about the means of verbal and non-verbal communication, etc. Despite the fact that each individual has a different volume of these blocks and their structure, since they are formed on the basis of not only social cognitive experience, but also personal, despite the fact that they depend on the characteristics of the cerebral hemispheres, which differ in asymmetry. The presence of ready-made blocks allows you to operate with them with sufficient efficiency to perceive and evaluate information and formulate your reaction.

It is noted that already at the initial stage of interpersonal communication, both partners, relying on their cognitive experience, solve several problems simultaneously: 1) What do I think about myself - who am I? 2) What do I think about my partner - who is he? 3) What do I think about what my partner thinks about me? 4) What does your partner think about himself? 5) What does my partner think about me? 6) What does my partner think about how I imagine him. It includes blocks of identification, self-knowledge, reflection, forecasting the development of a partner’s image - everything that helps to “tune in” to interpersonal communication.

The functional parameter also plays a significant role in the successful actualization of the function of speech interaction, but is not decisive, except in cases where a gross violation of generally accepted norms of social differentiation and situational variability of means of communication is allowed.

Perception in the context of social psychological research is interpreted as a person's understanding and assessment of a person; and not only and not so much his qualities, but his relationships with other people. The most studied mechanisms of interpersonal perception are: a) identification - understanding another person by identifying oneself with him; b) reflection - understanding another through thinking for him; c) empathy - understanding another person through emotional sympathy; d) stereotyping - the perception and assessment of another by conveying to him the generally accepted characteristics of a social group or its representative.

In the context of interpersonal communication, perception is, first of all, a complex process of receiving and processing semantic and evaluative information, a necessary condition for updating interpersonal communication. The effectiveness of interpersonal communication depends on the degree of adequacy of semantic perception, since this is associated with the correct interpretation of information, the communicative attitude of the partner and the prediction of subsequent stages of communication.

Among the objective factors that determine perception, the features of a speech message (statement, discourse) are noted, which can differ in type (description, narration, argumentation, etc.), structure (sequence of statements - clarifying, generalizing, etc.). .) or about the composition of discourse (introduction, main part, conclusion). Also important is the constancy of perception—its relative independence from accompanying situational factors.

Subjective factors include functional features of the perception process, determined by the cognitive characteristics of a person: the meaningfulness of perception, the discreteness of this process, the conditionality of perception by a person’s past experience, the anticipatory nature of perception. The ability to foresee, as studies by Russian psychologists have shown, is probabilistic in nature and is one of the most important characteristics of the perception process.

The effectiveness of interpersonal communication in a corporate environment (using the example of employees)

Corporate environment

The corporate culture of Fabrika Kachestva is an excellent example of the organization of joint work and leisure of company employees, the rules and traditions of business communication, as well as the social protection system.

The organization of a comfortable and aesthetic work space, material and information support for the work process, and the creation of a favorable psychological atmosphere contribute to the successful solution of current business problems.

To develop and maintain informal communication and friendly relations between employees, regular corporate events are organized in individual offices and in the company as a whole.

Reliable material support, expressed in decent wages and an expanded social package, allows employees to fully devote themselves to their work and feel confident in the future.

Assessing the effectiveness of interpersonal communication in a corporate environment

To determine how new employees affect the results of work and the organization of the company, we decided to conduct a survey among promoters. To obtain objective data, 100 employees were involved in the survey. For the same purposes, the survey was anonymous.

The questionnaire is aimed at identifying the effectiveness of interpersonal communication in a corporate environment. The questionnaire consists of 5 questions. The first two questions of the questionnaire are aimed at creating an average portrait of the employee: age, gender. Third question: “How did you establish relationships with the team?” was entered into the questionnaire to determine the functions of interpersonal communication. Answers to the fourth question: “Do you feel competition in the new team?” will show how ambitious a person is. Fifth question: “How do you think the activities of new employees affect the company?” reveals to us the employees' opinions about their importance in the team.

After compiling the questionnaire, we contacted the Quality Factory marketing department to obtain a complete list of promoters, including full-time, temporary and recently laid-off promoters. This list included 107 people.

After reviewing the list and conducting social media searches, we sent questionnaires electronically asking for responses to these questions within three days. Responses to the questionnaire began to arrive from the first day, after 3 days 101 responses were received. 6 people ignored our request to answer the questionnaire. For convenient analysis of the data obtained, the responses of 100 people were taken as a basis.

When analyzing the information received, the following was revealed:

By age, workers aged 19-20 years predominate (67%). Workers aged 17-18 years old - 20%, and workers aged 21-23 years old - 13%.
By gender, working women predominate: 85% are women and 15% are men.

To build relationships with the team, respondents use all means of communication. 97% chose to express emotions, so the team will have a friendly and calm atmosphere. 82% chose regulated behavior - this helps to coordinate joint actions when doing work. 60% chose understanding of colleagues - what is used to convey specific activities, assessments, opinions, judgments. 30% chose knowledge sharing, which has a positive effect on the overall intellectual environment in the team. 15% chose cultural skills - which ensures the acquisition of a certain level of cultural competence.

60% of respondents feel competition in the team and strive for leadership, which contributes to the dynamic development of the organization. 40% do not feel competition, they are slavish team members.

Assessing the impact of the activities of new employees on the organization, 53% of respondents noted a positive impact on the organization, namely the ideas of new employees. 31% - negative impact due to inexperience at work. 16% did not notice any impact.

By summing up all the data, we can create a portrait of the average statistical promoter of a quality factory. She is a 19-20 year old female who strives for team leadership and builds team relationships using expressive, pragmatic and interpretive interpersonal communication functions.

Conclusion:

The effectiveness of interpersonal communication depends on the degree of adequacy of semantic perception, since this is associated with the correct interpretation of information, the communicative attitude of the partner and the prediction of subsequent stages of communication. In intercultural communication, each culture is a system of codes that extends its effect to everyday relationships, social and cultural norms, etc. These cultural coding systems are usually incomparable with each other or, at best, they are comparable only to a limited extent degrees. In this regard, in the communication process, the problem of encoding and decoding information becomes relevant. The contradictions of such different ideas can easily lead to conflict.

Different cultures have different rules for exchanging information. The difference in national cultures and behavior stems from the history of the formation of the national community and the traditions that have developed over the centuries among different peoples. This is reflected in the customs and skills of communicative behavior, as well as in a certain logic and stereotype of behavior among representatives of a certain culture. Thus, in business and personal contacts, the ability of representatives of different cultures to take into account the characteristics of the culture with which the communication takes place is of great importance.

By analyzing data from a survey of Quality Factory employees, we achieved the goal of our work and identified the influence of new promoters. Overall this impact is positive. New employees bring new ideas, they are not afraid to implement them, they try to create a hospitable atmosphere in the team, which also contributes to achieving high results.

Levels and types of perception

There are several levels of perception, which in turn are divided into perception and awareness:

Detection. The first level at which stimulus detection occurs.
Discrimination or perception. An image is being formed.
Identification. The stage of awareness begins, the image stored in memory is compared with the object.
Identification. In the end, the object is classified and assigned to a group.

Various types of analyzers are involved in the process of perception, but, as a rule, they work in combination.

This:

visual;
auditory;
olfactory;
tactile;
taste.

In addition, depending on the object of perception, which has certain reference points, perception is distinguished:

Time. His perception is not innate and depends on the sum of factors; it is a reflection of reality within the framework of the sequence of occurring phenomena. The perception of time may be biased, for example, under the influence of drugs, which can excite, change or inhibit processes.
Movements. When stimuli are excited, the retina perceives movement that occurs against some background, homogeneous or not, or in its absence, for example, in the dark. The movement of the eyes is also perceived by the brain as the movement of objects.
Spaces. The ability to navigate in space is one of the most important qualities of a person when interacting with the external environment. Perception includes the coordinate system of the person himself, how he takes his place in this space, which has relief and direction.

Perception is also classified into voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary or intentional is formed in the form of observation, which, in turn, consists of a person’s experience and knowledge about the object of observation.

Classification of stereotypes

There are several existing classifications of stereotypes. According to V. Panferov’s classification, stereotypes are: social, anthropological, and ethnonational.

Let us dwell in more detail on A. Rean’s classification, according to which there are stereotypes:

Anthropological. They appear in the case when the assessment of a person’s psychological qualities and his personality depends on the characteristics of his appearance, that is, anthropological characteristics.
Ethnonational. They are relevant when a person’s psychological assessment is influenced by his belonging to a particular ethnic group, race or nation.
Social status. They take place if the assessment of an individual’s personal qualities occurs depending on his social status.
Social-role. In this case, personality assessment is subordinated to the social role and role functions of the individual.
Expressive and aesthetic. Psychological assessment of personality is mediated by a person’s external attractiveness.
Verbal-behavioural. The criterion for assessing a personality is its external features: facial expressions, pantomime, language, etc.

There are other classifications. In them, in addition to the previous ones, the following stereotypes are considered: professional (a generalized image of a representative of a particular profession), physiognomic (appearance traits are associated with personality), ethnic and others.

National stereotypes are considered the most studied. They illustrate people's attitudes towards certain ethnic groups. Such stereotypes often serve as part of a nation's mentality and identity, and also have a clear connection with national character.

Stereotyping, which arises in conditions of lack of information, as a mechanism of interpersonal perception, can play a conservative and even reactionary role, forming in people an incorrect idea of others and deforming the processes of interpersonal interaction and mutual understanding. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the truth or fallacy of social stereotypes purely on the basis of an analysis of specific situations.

Effects of social perception

Certain features that prevent interacting partners from adequately perceiving each other are called social perception effects. These include: halo effect, projection, primacy, novelty, average error.

Interpersonal perception involves mutual assessment by the participants of communicative interaction, but over time there is no change in the evaluative judgments of the partners. This occurs due to natural causes and is called the halo effect. In other words, the once formed judgment of one participant about another does not change, even though new information about the subject of communication accumulates and new experience arises.

The effect of social perception can be observed during the formation of a first impression about an individual, when a general good impression leads to a generally positive evaluation and, conversely, an unfavorable impression provokes a predominance of negative evaluations.

Effects such as primacy and novelty are closely related to such social effects. During the perception of an unfamiliar individual, the primacy effect prevails. The opposite of this effect is the effect of novelty, which consists in the fact that information received last is more significant. The novelty effect works when perceiving a previously familiar individual.

They also distinguish the effect of projection, which is the attribution of one’s own merits to a pleasant interlocutor, and one’s own shortcomings to an unpleasant interlocutor, in other words, to most clearly identify in interlocutors precisely those qualities that are clearly expressed in the perceiving individual. The effect of the average error is expressed in the tendency to soften the assessment of the most pronounced features of the partner towards the average.

The listed effects should be considered as an expression of a special process that accompanies the perception of an individual by an individual. This process is called stereotyping.

Thus, the concept of perception is a reflection of things and situations of reality during their impact on people’s senses. In this case, the age period in which the perceiving individual is located plays an important role.

Getting a first impression of a person

A person's daily life is full of new encounters, and in many situations a person has to be assessed on the basis of short-term perceptions - these are first impressions, and on their basis, appropriate behavior is formed.

The first impression is a complex psychological phenomenon that includes logical, emotional and sensory components. The first impression can be formed both with a specific intention to evaluate a person, and in the absence of such intention.

The decisive factors for your impression of a person you meet for the first time are the characteristics of his appearance and behavior. The person himself, his behavior and appearance are very clearly reflected at the first meeting.

The situation in which the meeting took place also has a significant impact on the formation of an impression of a stranger.

The impression also depends on the personal characteristics of the person who judges the stranger, his mental structure and attitude towards various aspects of reality.

These factors are global and closely interrelated.

Research conducted by psychologists suggests that when forming an opinion about the personal qualities of a person you meet for the first time, his overall aesthetic expression is of great importance. For example, the extent to which a person's appearance corresponds to the established ideal of beauty.

Using the competent judges method, A. Miller conducted an experiment in which he selected beautiful faces from the judges' point of view and ordinary faces from a large number of photographs. Two groups of photographs were shown to women and men aged 18 to 24 years. The subjects' task was to tell something about the inner world of each person based on photographs.

Photos with more beautiful faces were described as confident, sincere, happy, mentally rich people. The evaluation of the second group of photographs showed significant discrepancies with the first group.

This research suggests that physical attractiveness causes a “shift” in personality when the goal is a personality trait and when a specific outcome of an activity or behavior is valued.

Gender characteristics of perception

Perception in psychology is the acceptance of people of different sexes and genders, their appearance characteristics, outlook on life, experience and knowledge. The concept of gender describes a person’s status, his social perception; it is a kind of social gender.

Gender stereotypes are widespread in society and are essentially recognized as social norms for both sexes. There is also a division on the emotional level; it is believed that men are more prone to logic and self-organization, while women are exclusively emotional.

At the same time, women now bear on their shoulders building a career, raising children, and running a household. But the distribution of gender roles can also have a negative impact on a man.

Forcing a man to be successful suppresses his personality and leads to depression. A personality must develop individually based on its psychophysiological characteristics. A sense of duty should also not interfere with the development of individual potential.

Communication concept.

From the moment of his birth until the end of his life, a person is in the process of constant communication and interaction with other people. Statisticians in some countries have calculated that up to 70% of the time in the lives of most people is occupied by communication processes. In communication, we convey a variety of information to each other; exchange knowledge, opinions, beliefs; declare our goals and interests; We learn practical skills and abilities, as well as moral principles, rules of etiquette and traditions.

However, communication does not always proceed smoothly and successfully. Often we are faced with critical situations: someone did not understand us; we did not understand someone; We spoke to someone too harshly, rudely, although we did not want this. There is no person who has never experienced difficulties in the process of communication in his life. In private life, we have the right to choose those with whom we enjoy communicating, those who appeal to us. However, in the service we are obliged to communicate with those who are there, including people who we don’t like

In this situation, it is very important to be able to learn how to establish contact, since the success of professional activity depends on this skill. Numerous studies by psychologists have proven that there is a direct connection between the quality of communication and the effectiveness of any activity, i.e.

e. almost everything depends on the ability to contact people

5 pages, 2482 words

Mechanisms of person’s perception by person and mutual understanding in the process of communication

… . the way your communication partner sees you. Mechanisms of perception of a person by a person and mutual understanding in the process of communication The idea of another person is closely related to the level of one’s own self-awareness...

— Do you think your future professional activity as a nurse (paramedic) somehow depends on your ability to communicate and achieve mutual understanding?

Even Avicenna, the great physician and thinker of the Middle Ages, spoke about three means of helping a sick person - “the knife, the grass and the word,” thereby emphasizing the importance of the human word, and in fact, the psychology of communication in healing from illness. Any activity is possible only if psychological contact and mutual understanding are established between people

However, we must remember that successful communication is achieved not only by knowledge, techniques and technology. The basis of communication is a sincere, friendly attitude towards a person.

Each of us has an idea of what communication is. Our life is built from it, it lies at the basis of human existence, therefore communication has become the object of socio-psychological analysis. There are many definitions of communication in the literature. We will use the most general concept.

Communication is a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, as well as perception, empathy and mutual understanding of each other.

Communication is of great importance in the formation of the human psyche, in the development and establishment of reasonable cultural behavior. Through communication, a person acquires higher cognitive abilities and qualities; through communication, a person turns into a personality (examples - Mowgli children)

Communication is always a two-way process in which all its participants are involved, leading to the mutual connection of people with each other.

The study of the communication process has shown how complex and diverse this phenomenon is. Communication is carried out in the unity of its three functions:

1) Communication function -

manifests itself in the mutual exchange of information between partners in communication, transmission and reception of knowledge, opinions, feelings;

2 pages, 915 words

QUESTION ╣ 25 Communication with peers is the leading activity in adolescence

... In the second half of adolescence, communication with peers turns into an independent activity. A teenager cannot sit at home, ... the code of partnership,” which includes respect for the personal dignity of another person, equality, fidelity, honesty, decency, willingness to come to ... who in their development have not yet reached the level of self-esteem, do not have their own opinion, do not know how ...

2) Interactive feature -

is to organize interpersonal communication. When participants in communication exchange not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions, experiences, deeds;

3) Perceptual function -

manifests itself through people’s perception, understanding and evaluation of each other.

To better understand what communication is, we need to consider in detail its types, levels, features and obstacles.

Communication means

In communication there are verbal and non-verbal means

communication.

Verbal means are speech (verbal) means of communication. Non-verbal – postures, gestures, facial expressions.

— What role do you think these and other means of communication play?

According to A. Meirabian, in the process of communication, only 7% of information is transmitted through verbal means of communication (words), 38% of information is transmitted through intonation, voice timbre, and 55% of information is transmitted through non-verbal means (gestures, facial expressions, pantomimes).

Learning to understand the language of nonverbal communication is very important.

- Why do you think?

Any of the nonverbal components of communication can help verify the truth of what is said in words and understand what people really think.

However, for the correct interpretation of nonverbal communication, experts recommend following the following rules:

— one should “read” not individual gestures (they, like some words, can have several meanings), but their totality;

- gestures should be interpreted in the context of their manifestations (“arms crossed on the chest”; when communicating, this gesture expresses distrust, closedness; in cold weather a person is simply frozen);

- it is necessary to take into account national characteristics (for example, according to an English psychologist, during an hour-long conversation, a Finn resorts to gestures once, an Italian - 80 times, a Frenchman - 120 times, a Mexican - 180 times)

- when “reading” gestures, you should not attribute your experience and your condition to another person

- So, let's look at some types of nonverbal communication.

The most important means of nonverbal communication is facial expressions

.
Facial expressions are closely related to emotions and allow a person to guess about the feelings of joy, sadness, tension or peace experienced by the interlocutor. Facial expressions help a person convey his mood and attitude towards what he is talking about. Forehead, eyebrows, mouth, eyes, nose, chin - these parts of the face express basic human emotions. This could be: suffering, anger, joy, fear, etc.
Moreover, it is easier to recognize positive emotions. The main cognitive load when recognizing true feelings is borne by the eyebrows and lips (according to other researchers, these are the lips and chin).

Thus, eyebrows shifted towards the bridge of the nose express anger. Raised eyebrows can convey surprise, bewilderment or admiration. Drooping corners of the lips indicate sadness, grief or sadness. Tightly compressed lips indicate resentment.

— What do these drawings have in common?

A universal means of non-verbal communication is a smile.

– Do you think a nurse needs a smile? Why?

The nurse's face should be friendly and open, expressing sincere sympathy. It is a smile that allows you to establish trusting contact with the patient and helps to cope with the negative emotions that the patient experiences. We will talk more about this in the medical psychology course. A smile relieves the wariness of the first minutes, promotes calm, confident communication and creates a positive attitude. A smile means goodwill, the need for approval. Smiling helps you feel more confident and happier. Psychologists recommend that words of greeting and gratitude be accompanied by a smile. (Americans like to repeat: “smile.” However, it must be remembered that the smile should be appropriate to the situation and should not irritate the interlocutor.)

25 pages, 12060 words

016_Man. Its structure. Subtle World

... the contact became conscious. It is with consciousness that a person must touch and touch the Higher Worlds, because unconscious communication with them will not give the necessary consequences... Sleep is a small death How to refine... profitably and extract very interesting and instructive impressions. The main existence (of man) is at night. An ordinary person can live no more than a few days without sleep under normal conditions. ...

The first step towards your interlocutor is a glance

. The look is very eloquent and expresses a wide variety of feelings and states. He can be tough, prickly, kind, joyful, open, hostile, wandering, frozen, etc. The gaze expresses the attitude towards the interlocutor. It has been noticed that if a person is trying to hide some information (or is lying), his eyes meet the eyes of his partner less than one third of the time of the conversation. Making eye contact helps regulate conversation. When a person speaks, he usually looks at the interlocutor less often than when he listens to him. Looking to the side or sideways is perceived as an expression of suspicion and doubt. (Statistics have calculated that in the works of L. N. Tolstoy, 85 shades of eye expression and 97 shades of a smile are described.)

Facial expressions can be consciously controlled in order to “hide” information about the psychological state. Therefore, in communication, it is important to know what information can be obtained by observing a person’s body and his movements. The next means of non-verbal communication is gestures

. In a conversation, we often accompany words with actions in which the hands play the main role, and even a simple handshake carries information about the interlocutor. Thus, a handshake hand presented palm down usually means the partner’s superiority, a hand presented palm up signifies agreement to submit, and a hand presented vertically signifies a partner’s handshake. (Every human gesture is like a word in a language; it is inextricably linked with the train of thought and the movement of feelings.)

The most common types of gestures in communication are:

A) gestures of appreciation

, in which a person evaluates information: scratching the chin, extending the index finger along the cheek, standing up and walking

B) gestures of self-control

: hands are brought behind the back, with one squeezing the other, or when a person sitting on a chair grabs the armrests with their hands

B) gestures of dominance

: Thumb-exposing gestures and sharp downward strokes

D) location gestures

: placing a hand on the chest, indicating honesty, and intermittently touching the interlocutor

Body position is of great importance in the process of communication. Our appearance largely depends on the ability to hold and move. Our manner of standing, walking and sitting is an additional source of information.

For example, when the interlocutor sits slightly leaning forward, he expresses attention and concentration; if he leaned back and crossed his legs, then his appearance “speaks” of disinterest, “switching off” from the conversation.

During communication, you can observe the most “readable” postures:

A) open

, characterizing sincerity and truthfulness: open palms of hands turned towards the interlocutor; legs are not crossed; unbuttoned jacket

B) closed

, or defensive, meaning a reaction to possible threats or conflict situations: crossed arms; sitting astride a chair, with the back of the chair acting as a shield or protection; and also when a person sits on a chair with his legs crossed or crossed

28 pages, 13511 words

Place of communication in the system of human relations

... (expressive) and internal (impressive) sides. The impressive (internal) side of communication reflects the subjective perception of the interaction situation, reaction to real or expected contact. The main thing here... is that the structure of a communication situation is made up of time, place, environment and context of communication, as well as the norms governing communication. The subject of communication is the person who initiates the communication, as well as the one...

B) readiness pose

, characterizing the desire for active actions: hands lie on the hips; the torso is tilted forward, the hands rest on the knees, and the legs rest on the floor so that one leg protrudes slightly forward, leaving the other behind

Another important factor in communication is interpersonal space

– how close or far the interlocutors are in relation to each other:

There are four spatial zones or distances in communication:

1) intimate area

(from 0 to 45 cm).

This distance corresponds to intimate relationships and is typical for relatives, lovers and friends. This zone is the most important and protected by man;

2) personal zone

(from 45 cm to 120 cm).

This distance is used in everyday communication among familiar people (corresponds to informal social and business relationships);

3) social zone

(from 120 cm to 400 cm) This is the distance of official meetings with strangers whom we do not know very well (corresponds to formal and official relationships);

4) public or public area

(from 400 cm to 750 cm) This is communication with a large number of people, with a group, with an audience (for example, it is more convenient for a lecturer to convey information, and for listeners to perceive).

People generally feel comfortable and make a favorable impression when standing or sitting at a distance appropriate for these types of interactions. An excessively close, as well as an excessively distant position has a negative impact on communication.

Effects, phenomena and mechanisms of interpersonal perception