Psychological observation: the essence of the method, advantages and disadvantages

Psychological observation: definition of the concept

Observation in psychology is one of the main methods of knowing the characteristics of an object empirically. The method requires a mandatory transition from describing facts to explaining their essence, forming a psychological characteristic of what is being observed.

The results of applying the scientific method can be influenced by the following factors:

level of knowledge in the area under study;
professional experience, qualifications of the observer;
personal experience, emotional and mental stereotypes, value orientations of the psychologist.

Observation presupposes the non-interference of the subject in the process or situation under study.

The method makes it possible to get a complete picture of what is happening and reflect it through records and tables. A special feature of the procedure is the complexity, and often the impossibility, of accurately repeating the observation situation.

Conditions required for observation

A short period of time so that changes in the environment do not affect the behavior or phenomenon being studied

It is also necessary to record the most characteristic features of the conditions and situations in which the observation occurs.

Observable events must be observable in nature and occur publicly (open behavior). For example, in a store, on the street, in an office.

Observation can be used to study not only the behavior of customers in a store or employees providing services to consumers, but also other processes. For example, how people use certain products (do their hair, cook breakfast, mow the lawn, etc.). The results can be used to create new product modifications, improve service, distribution and advertising (new themes for advertising campaigns).

Observation is a fairly flexible method of collecting information because it can be carried out by researchers in various forms. To group different methods of observation, the following classification criteria can be used:

Nature of the environment;
The researcher’s place in the process under study;
the way in which an object is perceived by the observer; And
Degree of standardization of observation;
degree of openness of the observation process;
The nature of the observed events;
Regularity of observation.

The need to control the external conditions of observation determines the form of observation depending on the nature of the environment. Observation in the laboratory allows researchers complete control over the research environment and also provides greater flexibility in the use of specialized equipment. By creating the most favorable conditions for observation, researchers reduce the time and cost of observation. However, inviting subjects into a specific observation room and presenting them with a new environment may influence their natural behavior, thereby distorting the information and reducing its objectivity. For example, they spend much more time choosing brands of products than in a natural situation. Or, conversely, those who consider it “indecent” to study product samples, or those who do not want to seem too meticulous and intrusive when consulting with sellers, shorten the process of choosing a brand. Therefore, it may be more appropriate to conduct the study in the field; the advantage in this case is the naturalness of the observed behavior. Unfortunately, field observations have a serious drawback - research participants can be influenced by various external factors, including those that are random in nature and not directly related to the process being studied. For example, a sales floor may be out of stock at a certain time when consumer behavior is being studied. High traffic levels in a store during busy times can prevent shoppers from exploring a full range of products or checking out the packaging of a new brand; shoppers who can't stand crowds will likely limit their selection to the most familiar options. In the real world, it is also possible that the store (café or other establishment where the study is being conducted) may not have any intended customers for some time. To balance the disadvantages of field and laboratory forms, you can use a combined option - laboratory and field observation. In this case, the study is carried out in natural conditions, and a number of measures are taken to maintain their stability over time. When conducting laboratory and field observations, researchers must enlist the support of the administration of the organization where the observation is planned, for example, ensuring the availability of the required number of goods on the sales floor or otherwise ensuring the stability of the observation conditions.

The essence of the method

Observation in psychological science, unlike everyday observation, is based on a specific plan, a program thought out in advance, and requires recording facts, their analysis and interpretation.

Only external (speech, motor) manifestations are available for tracking. For example, it is impossible to observe:

intelligence, but the researcher can monitor the process of solving problems;
sociability, but you can see the fact of communication with other people.

Observed situations, phenomena, and behavior of objects are necessarily recorded in protocols and diaries. The observed characteristics are presented as descriptively as possible, without explanation. The form of the protocol reflects the subject, task, hypothesis and main criteria of the study.

The reliability of observation results increases if the researcher has the opportunity to use the method for a long time, to observe objects in different situations and roles. The reliability of the study also increases if several observers monitor the situation.

Qualitative observation is only possible if there are no role relationships between object and subject. For example, a schoolchild behaves differently in the presence of parents, teachers and friends. Therefore, the characteristics that different people give it differ.

Psychological observation does not allow the subject to intervene in the situation being studied. The observation results are necessarily supported by data from other research methods.

Classification of observations.

Observations are classified in sociology according to various aspects:

According to the degree of formalization of the procedure.
According to the degree of observer participation in the study.
At the location of observation
Judging by the regularity of observations.

Let's look at the types of observations in more detail.

Depending on the degree of formalization, we distinguish between uncontrolled (or non-standard, unstructured) observation and controlled (standardized, structured) observation.

In non-standardized observation, most of the observed elements are not predetermined. This type of observation requires solid theoretical training in the field of sociology, psychology, social psychology and conflict resolution, the ability to observe at least 5-7 parameters of a situation with equal attention, and the ability to quickly switch attention. That is, the researcher uses only a general principle design, according to which the results are recorded in free form directly during observation or later from memory.

Standardized observation, on the other hand, is characterized by clearly formalized procedures and instruments, which, in turn, require the observer to have greater ability to focus on detail and self-control, as well as punctuality, diligence and pedantry. In this case, it is necessary to have a pre-compiled list of events and signs to be observed; definition of conditions and observational situations; instructions for observers; uniform coders for recording observed phenomena.

Depending on the observer's position, a distinction is made between participatory (or participation) observation and simple observation. In the first case, the researcher simulates entering the social environment, adapts to it and analyzes events as if “from the inside.” Participant observation, in turn, can be open or closed. In the open, those being observed are aware of the researcher's presence among them and know the researcher's goals. Such an observer needs the ability to quickly and effectively establish contacts with strangers, sociability, friendliness, tact, restraint and tolerance (compatibility with other people).

Confidential surveillance, which is carried out incognito (covertly), means that the observers know nothing about the observer and think that he is one of them. Here, the observer needs not only the above qualities, but also artistry, the ability to respond to many signals simultaneously, systematize them quickly and remember them for a long time (more precisely, until the completion of the relevant methodological documentation), the ability not to lose a research position under the influence of various circumstances, and to maintain neutrality in conflicts between observers and many other qualities close to those of a scout.

In simple observation, the observer registers events “from outside.” The ideal observer, the non-observer, tries to be invisible. Since this ideal is unattainable, he must behave in such a way that he is noticed as little as possible in order to reduce the disturbance he causes to the observed phenomenon. Bright (pretentious) clothing, extravagant manners, and excessive demonstration of his interest in the events being studied are contraindicated for him. He must have a stable psyche, a phlegmatic temperament, the ability to self-control during sudden changes in the situation, patience and stability in relation to an external observer.

Depending on the conditions of the organization, observations are divided into field (observations in natural conditions) and laboratory (in an experimental situation). These types of observations also place special demands on the professional knowledge and skills of the sociologist, as well as on his personal qualities: Laboratory observation, carried out in artificially created conditions, increases the importance of the researcher’s ability to regulate these conditions and control their influence on the observed, as well as such qualities as adherence to principles and accuracy, technical competence (through the use of audiovisual surveillance). In field observations carried out in ordinary social life and providing more objective information, knowledge of the meaning of people’s non-verbal reactions (smiles, gestures), working memory, analytical thinking of the observer, his ability to distinguish individual features of the object being studied from each other, to distribute his attention to all of them and switch it to one of them, play a special role.

There are also systematic, episodic and random observations (the last two are sometimes summarized by the term "non-systematic").

Random observations, which are not included in the research program and in which the units of observation are not strictly regulated, can become heuristically valuable only if the theoretical thinking, scientific imagination and intuition of the sociologist are well developed.

However, in systematic observation, the purpose of which is regular recording (according to a strict schedule and in clearly regulated methodological documents) of observation units determined not by the observer himself, but by the director of the study, these qualities are not mandatory.

Sociological schools focused on qualitative methods of social research use the observation method as one of the central independent methods. A classic example in sociology is N. Anderson's study of the lives of Chicago hobos through integrative observation. History knows of many other studies of this type, such as Thrasher's study of urban gangs (Chicago, 1928). A relatively recent example of this approach is the study of M. Borovaya, a professor of sociology at the University of California at Berkeley, who spent several years working as a factory worker in various countries (including Russia).

Let's look at one of the classic examples of using participant observation to obtain basic information: the work of William White (1936 - 1939), who introduced this method of observation into scientific practice.

While studying at Harvard University, White settled in the slums of an American city to study the lifestyle of the Italian immigrants living there (he gave the area the name Corneville). Whites were interested in the habits of emigrants who found themselves in a foreign culture, their orientation and relationships. The Clorneville area was known as a dangerous Italian ghetto for outsiders, full of suspicious gangs. White entered the local community, ostensibly a history student who wanted to describe the origins of Clorneville. The researcher examined the specific jargon of the Italian language used in society. For three years he lived side by side with these people, befriending the leaders of two rival groups of con artists and learning about local customs, card games, and the game of ball. He lived with the same immigrant family for 18 months, eventually being accepted as one of them. At first he secretly wrote down his impressions, but as he gained confidence in himself, he did not hesitate to take notes in the most seemingly inappropriate places; everyone was used to seeing him with a notebook in his hand.

Object and surveillance equipment

The objects of observation are individual people or many participants at once. They may belong to the same or different social groups. The subject of observation is the behavior of those being watched:

verbal manifestations - content of conversations, intensity, duration of speech, expressiveness, vocabulary, grammatical structures;
non-verbal manifestations - facial expression, direction of gaze, eye movements, facial expressions, gestures;
movement - maintaining or not maintaining a distance, speed of movement or state of immobility;
physical influence on others - blows, pushes, touches, joint efforts.

Only that which can be registered becomes the object of observation. While tracking an object, the researcher does not observe his own mental reality, but records those facts that he sees and can record. The psyche is manifested in behavior - this postulate allows the researcher to make assumptions about the mental properties of an object. The basis for the hypothesis is observational data.

The means of observation can be either the researcher himself or the auxiliary elements chosen by him:

sound recording equipment;
video and photo camera;
special observation maps.

The choice of equipment for recording the situation is determined by the conditions in which it is carried out - in an isolated room, in a public place.

Psychological observation: applied classification

In psychology, the observation method is used in cases where the researcher needs to obtain information about the behavior of a specific person or group of people in the most natural conditions for them, without interfering in the situation. The observation itself should not in any way affect the natural development of events.

There are several types of psychological observation:

laboratory;
field (in natural life conditions);
explicit;
hidden;
indirect;
indirect;
included (open or closed type);
not included;
direct;
indirect;
solid;
selective.

During continuous tracking, the researcher records all the nuances and signs of the object’s mental activity over a certain period of time. In selective research, only those manifestations that directly or indirectly relate to the topic being studied are taken into account.

The classification also includes the concept of systematic and non-systematic observation. In the first case, the research is carried out in accordance with a clearly defined plan. The observer records behavioral characteristics, registers and classifies external conditions.

With non-systematic observation, the researcher’s focus is on a generalized picture of the behavior of a subject or group of people in certain external conditions. At the same time, the goal is not to record the causes of behavioral manifestations, analyze their relationship and strictly describe the phenomena.

Field observations are carried out in natural conditions for an object or group. The main requirement is the researcher's non-interference in the situation. Observation in natural conditions makes it possible to study the behavior of an object without significant distortions. But the problem with conducting such research is that it is labor intensive, and also that the researcher cannot control the situation. Field surveillance is often unsystematic and is carried out using a wait-and-see approach.

Laboratory tracking is more convenient for the researcher, but the artificial environment may not have the best effect on the results of the study.

According to the duration of the study, they are distinguished:

longitudinal - carried out over a long time (several years, decades), involves constant contact between the researcher and the object of study. The result of the observation is recorded in diaries, representing as widely as possible the behavior, lifestyle, habits and other manifestations on the part of the object;
Periodic is the most common type of chronological tracking structure. It is carried out over several short periods of time.

Single, one-time observations - they are presented as a description of individual cases. Research is unique in nature, but can also be represented by already known manifestations of a psychological process or phenomenon.

Based on the forms of research, a distinction is made between conscious and unconscious, internal and external observations.

Unconscious internal psychological observation

This type of surveillance is characterized by the fact that the target is unaware that he is being monitored. The researcher himself becomes part of the situation. For example, psychologists often infiltrate a specific company in order to study in as much detail as possible the behavioral characteristics of its participants. During the study, the observer comes into close contact with the object or their group, but the subjects are not aware of the purpose of the interaction.

The method of unconscious internal observation is often used to study the characteristics of small social groups. The psychologist's natural behavior contributes to successful research. If this condition is met, work in a group does not affect the course of the study and the behavior of its participants.

Ethical issues can complicate the job. During tracking, difficulties may arise with audio and video recording, especially considering that the recording of the results must occur in secret from the participants.

The observation itself does not influence the subject's behavior as prescribed by the protocol. He receives the maximum amount of useful information if he can establish direct contact with the subjects being studied. But another problem may be that the psychologist begins to share the moral values of the subjects being studied, and the specialist experiences a moral conflict.

Conscious internal psychological observation

Conscious internal observation is characterized by the fact that the subject knows that he is being watched. The researcher comes into contact with the observed, even before starting work, introduces him to the task at hand, and talks about his status.

Sometimes the subject is given incorrect information. This is done to make it possible to record the characteristics of behavior in a specific situation. Such actions by researchers contradict the requirements of the ethical code and threaten serious punishment, and the experiment often has an unfavorable outcome. The situation itself creates stress for the observed, and its consequences can negatively affect his future life.

External type

The main condition for carrying out external unconscious observation is that the observed person does not know that he is being tracked. The psychologist does not come into contact with the object or the group being studied, but only records the information received, being in a detached position.

Thus, doctors in psychiatric clinics monitor patients through a small window. From the doctor's side it is transparent, but the patient sees a mirror instead of a window. This feature of the tracking organization makes it possible to observe the actions of objects without constraining or embarrassing them.

During external observation, it is possible to collect maximum objective information about the object, its behavior or mental manifestations. The advantage of such observation is that a tired researcher can be replaced by another, and it also becomes possible for several specialists to take part in the experiment at once.

In external research, the situation unfolds naturally, without pressure from the outside; the specialist has the opportunity to use technical means to record facts.

2.1. Characteristics of observation as a method of psychological research
2.2. Organization of psychological observation
2.3. Surveillance program
2.4. The use of observation in psychological and pedagogical research

Topic 2. Observation method

2.1. Characteristics of observation as a method of psychological research

Observation

– this is a purposeful, organized perception and recording of the behavior of the object under study. The observer’s task, as a rule, is not associated with interfering in “life” by creating special conditions for the manifestation of the observed process or phenomenon.

Observation differs from passive contemplation of the surrounding reality in that it: a) is subordinated to a specific goal; b) carried out according to a specific plan; c) equipped with objective means to carry out the process and record the results.

Observation is an active form of sensory cognition, which makes it possible to accumulate empirical data, form initial ideas about objects or check initial assumptions associated with them. Observation is historically the first scientific method of psychological research.

The term "observation" is used in three different meanings: 1) observation as an activity; 2) observation as a method; 3) observation as a technique.

Observation as an activity

refers to some areas of social practice. The power system operator observes the readings of instruments, the shift attendant inspects the equipment according to a certain plan, the doctor examines the patient, the investigator observes the behavior of the suspect, etc. In contrast to observation as a scientific method, observation as an activity is aimed at serving practical activities: observation is necessary for the doctor to making a diagnosis and clarifying the treatment process; to the investigator - to put forward and verify versions and solve the crime; to the energy system operator - to make decisions on the distribution of electricity flows.

Observation as a method

science includes a system of principles of cognitive activity, provisions on the essence and specificity of psychological observation, on its capabilities and limitations, on instrumental equipment and types of human activity in the role of an observer. Observation as a method of psychology is distinguished by its universality, i.e., its applicability to the study of a wide range of phenomena, flexibility, i.e., the ability to change the “field of coverage” of the object being studied as necessary, and to put forward and test additional hypotheses during the course of observation. To conduct observational research, minimal equipment is required.

The specificity of observation as a scientific method of psychology lies in the type of attitude towards the object of study (non-interference) and the presence of direct visual or auditory contact between the observer and the observed. The main characteristics of observation as a method of psychology are purposefulness, planning, and dependence on the theoretical concepts of the observer.

Observation as a technique

(observation technique) takes into account the specific task, situation, conditions and observation tools. An observation methodology is understood as a socially fixed, clearly stated for others, objectively presented system for collecting and processing empirical data, which is adequate to a clearly defined range of tasks. In foreign psychological literature, a synonym for “observation technique” is “observation technique”. The observation technique contains the most complete description of the observation procedure and includes: a) selection of the situation and object for observation; b) an observation program (scheme) in the form of a list of signs (aspects) of observed behavior and units of observation with a detailed description of them; c) the method and form of recording the observation results; d) description of the requirements for the observer’s work; e) description of the method of processing and presenting the obtained data.

Object and subject of observation.
The object of
external observation can be an individual, a group of people or a community. The object of observation is characterized by uniqueness, non-repetition, very short or very long duration of mental phenomena.

The main problem that arises when conducting observation is the effect of the presence of the observer on the behavior of the observed. To minimize this impact, the observer must “get familiar,” that is, be more often present in the environment, engage in some activity, and not focus on what is being observed. In addition, it is possible to explain the presence of the observer for some purpose acceptable to the observed, or to replace the human observer with recording equipment (video camera, voice recorder, etc.), or to conduct observation from an adjacent room through glass with one-way light conductivity (Gesell’s mirror). Modesty, tact, and good manners of the observer weaken the inevitable influence of his presence.

There is also a reception included

observations when the observer is an actual member of the group. However, this technique entails an ethical problem - the duality of position and the inability to observe oneself as a member of the group.

Subject

observations can only be external, exteriorized components of mental activity:

– motor components of practical and gnostic actions;

– movements, movements and stationary states of people (speed and direction of movement, contact, shocks, impacts);

– joint actions (groups of people);

– speech acts (their content, direction, frequency, duration, intensity, expressiveness, features of the lexical, grammatical, phonetic structure);

– facial expressions and pantomimes, expression of sounds;

– manifestations of some vegetative reactions (redness or paleness of the skin, changes in breathing rhythm, sweating).

When conducting observation, the difficulty arises of unambiguously understanding the internal, mental through observation of the external. In psychology, there is a polysemy of connections between external manifestations and subjective mental reality and a multi-level structure of mental phenomena, therefore the same behavioral manifestation can be associated with various mental processes.

Observer position

in relation to the object of observation can be open or hidden. Participant observation can also be classified as open or hidden, depending on whether the observer reports the fact of observation or not.

A human observer has selectivity of perception, which is determined by his attitudes and general orientation of activity. A certain attitude activates perception and heightens sensitivity to significant influences, but an overly fixed attitude leads to bias. The general direction of activity can serve as an incentive to overestimate some facts and underestimate others (teachers pay attention to cognitive activity, coaches - to body features, dexterity of movements, tailors - to the cut of clothes, etc.).

There is also the phenomenon of projection of one’s own “I” onto observed behavior. By interpreting the behavior of another person, the observer transfers his own point of view to him. The individual characteristics of the observer (predominant modality of perception - visual, auditory, etc., ability to concentrate and distribute attention, memory capacity, cognitive style, temperament, emotional stability, etc.) also have a significant impact on the result of observation. A good observer needs special observation training, which allows him to somewhat reduce the influence of individual characteristics.

Depending on the situation, field observation, laboratory observation and provoked observation in natural conditions are distinguished. Field

observation is carried out in the natural conditions of life of the observed person; distortions of behavior in this case are minimal.
This type of observation is very labor-intensive, since the situation of interest to the researcher is difficult to control and therefore observation is most often of a wait-and-see nature. Laboratory
observation is carried out in a more convenient situation for the researcher, but artificial conditions can greatly distort human behavior.
Provoked
observation is carried out in natural conditions, but the situation is set by the researcher. In developmental psychology, this observation comes close to a natural experiment (observation during play, during classes, etc.).

2.2. Organization of psychological observation

By method of organization

distinguish between unsystematic and systematic observation.
Non-systematic
observation is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology.
What is important for the researcher here is to create some generalized picture of the phenomenon being studied, the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions. Systematic
observation is carried out according to plan. The researcher identifies certain behavioral features and records their manifestation in various conditions or situations.

There are also continuous and selective observations. With continuous

During observation, the researcher records all the features of behavior, and during
selective observation
, he pays attention only to certain behavioral acts, records their frequency, duration, etc.

Various methods of organizing observation have their advantages and disadvantages. Thus, with unsystematic observation, random phenomena can be described, so it is preferable to organize systematic observation in changing conditions. With continuous observation, it is impossible to completely record everything observed, so in this case it is advisable to use equipment or involve several observers. With selective observation, the influence of the observer’s attitude on its result is not excluded (he sees only what he wants to see). To overcome such influence, it is possible to involve several observers, as well as to alternately test both the main and competing hypotheses.

Depending on the purpose

Research can be distinguished between exploratory research and research aimed at testing hypotheses.
Exploratory
research is carried out at the beginning of the development of any scientific field, is carried out extensively, and has the goal of obtaining the most complete description of all phenomena inherent in this field, to cover it entirely.
If observation is used in such a study, it is usually continuous. Domestic psychologist M.Ya. Basov, the author of a classic work on observation methods, defines the goal of such observation as “to observe in general,” to observe everything that an object manifests itself in, without selecting any specific manifestations.[28] In some sources, such observation is called expectant.
An example of an exploratory study conducted on the basis of observation is the work of D.B. Elkonina and T.V. Dragunova.[29] The general goal of this study was to obtain a description of all manifestations of neoplasms in the mental development of a child in adolescence. Systematic, long-term observation was carried out to identify the actual behavior and activities of adolescents during lessons, preparation of homework, club work, various competitions, characteristics of behavior and relationships with friends, teachers, parents, facts related to interests, plans for the future, attitude towards oneself , claims and aspirations, social activity, reactions to success and failure. Value judgments, conversations between children, arguments, and remarks were recorded.

If the purpose of the study is specific and strictly defined, the observation is structured differently. In this case it is called exploring,

or
selective.
In this case, the content of the observation is selected, the observed is divided into units. An example is the study of the stages of cognitive development conducted by J. Piaget.[30] To study one of the stages, the researcher chose the child's manipulative games with toys that have a cavity. Observations have shown that the ability to insert one object into another occurs later than the motor skills required for this. At a certain age, a child cannot do this because he does not understand how one object can be inside another.

On the use of surveillance equipment

distinguish between direct and indirect (using observational instruments and means of recording results) observation. Surveillance equipment includes audio, photo and video equipment, surveillance cards. However, technical means are not always available, and the use of a hidden camera or voice recorder poses an ethical problem, since the researcher in this case encroaches on a person’s inner world without his consent. Some researchers consider their use unacceptable.

According to the method of chronological organization

distinguish between longitudinal, periodic and single observation.
Longitudinal
observation is carried out over a number of years and involves constant contact between the researcher and the object of study.
The results of such observations are usually recorded in the form of diaries and widely cover the behavior, lifestyle, and habits of the observed person. Periodic
monitoring is carried out over certain, precisely defined periods of time.
This is the most common type of chronological organization of observation. Single,
or
one-time,
observations are usually presented in the form of a description of a single case. They can be either unique or typical manifestations of the phenomenon being studied.

Recording of observation results can be carried out during the observation process or after some time. In the latter case, as a rule, completeness, accuracy and reliability in recording the behavior of subjects suffer.

2.3. Surveillance program

The observation program (scheme) includes a list of observation units, language and form of description of the observed.

Selection of observation units.

After choosing an object and observation situation, the researcher faces the task of conducting observation and describing its results. Before observing, it is necessary to isolate from the continuous flow of an object’s behavior certain aspects of it, individual acts accessible to direct perception. The selected units of observation must be consistent with the purpose of the study and allow the results to be interpreted in accordance with the theoretical position. Units of observation can vary greatly in size and complexity.

Often the researcher cannot foresee in advance all the manifestations of the observed object, and then he indicates the most adequate goals for studying the category,

in accordance with which the observed activity is recorded.
(Categories are concepts denoting certain classes of phenomena.) They should have the same degree of generality, not overlap, and, if possible, exhaust all manifestations of activity. The highest level of conceptualization occurs if the categories form a system that covers all theoretically possible manifestations of the process being studied. Observation based on a system of categories is called systematized.
As an example, we can cite the structure of categories for describing the interaction of members of a small group when jointly solving a problem, proposed by the American psychologist R. Bales.[31] Bales divides all human behavior in this situation into 12 categories, divided into three socio-emotional areas: positive, negative and neutral. For example, the first category: “expresses solidarity, increases the status of another person, provides assistance, rewards,” the ninth category: “asks for advice on a direction, a possible course of action.” Subsuming a unit of observation under a certain category - the initial stage of interpretation - can be carried out during the process of observation.

When using categorized observation, it is possible to quantify the observed events. There are two main ways to obtain quantitative estimates during observation: 1) assessment by the observer of the intensity (severity) of the observed property, action - psychological scaling;

2) measuring the duration of the observed event -
timing.
Scaling in observation is carried out using the scoring method. Usually three- and ten-point scales are used. The score can be expressed not only as a number, but also as an adjective (“very strong, strong, average”, etc.). Sometimes a graphical form of scaling is used, in which the score is expressed by the value of a segment on a straight line, the extreme points of which mark the lower and upper points. For example, a scale for observing student behavior at school, developed by Ya. Strelyau to assess individual characteristics of a person, involves rating ten categories of behavior on a five-point scale and very accurately defines reactivity as a property of temperament.[32]

For timing in the process of direct observation, it is necessary: a) to be able to quickly isolate the desired unit from the observed behavior; b) establish in advance what is considered the beginning and what is the end of a behavioral act; c) have a chronometer. It should, however, be remembered that timing activities, as a rule, is unpleasant for a person and interferes with him.

Methods for recording observations.

General requirements for recording observations were formulated by M.Ya. Basov.[33]

1. The record must be factual, that is, every fact must be recorded in the form in which it actually existed.

2. The recording must include a description of the situation (subject and social) in which the observed event occurs (background recording).

3. The record must be complete to reflect the reality being studied in accordance with the purpose.

Based on the study of a large number of records by M.Ya. Basov was asked to distinguish between three main ways of verbally recording behavior: interpretive, generalizing-descriptive and photographic recordings. Using all three types of records allows you to collect the most detailed material.

Recording non-standardized observations.

In exploratory research, preliminary knowledge about the reality being studied is minimal, so the observer’s task is to record manifestations of the object’s activity in all their diversity.
This is a photographic
record. However, it is necessary to include elements of interpretation, since it is almost impossible to reflect the situation “impartially”. “One or two well-aimed words from a researcher are better than a stream of long descriptions, where ‘you can’t see the forest for the trees,’” wrote A.P. Boltunov.[34]

Typically, exploratory research uses the form of observational records in the form of a continuous protocol.

It must indicate the date, time, place, observation situation, social and objective environment, and, if necessary, the context of previous events. A continuous protocol is an ordinary sheet of paper on which recording is made without rubrics. For a complete recording, good concentration of the observer is necessary, as well as the use of shorthand or shorthand. A continuous protocol is used at the phase of clarifying the subject and situation of observation; on its basis, a list of observation units can be compiled.

In long-term field research conducted using the method of non-standardized observation, the form of recording is a diary.

It is carried out during multi-day observations in a notebook with numbered sheets and large margins for subsequent processing of records. To maintain the accuracy of observations over a long period of time, accuracy and uniformity of terminology must be observed. It is also recommended to keep diary entries directly, rather than from memory.

In a covert participant observation situation, data recording usually has to be done after the fact, since the observer does not have to reveal himself. In addition, as a participant in the events, he cannot write anything down. Therefore, the observer is forced to process observational material, summing up and generalizing homogeneous facts. Consequently, the observation diary uses generalizing descriptive

and
interpretative records.
However, at the same time, some of the most striking facts are reproduced by the observer relatively photographically, without processing, “as such and the only ones” (M.Ya. Basov).

Each observation diary entry should contain a short introduction to provide a better understanding of the behavior being recorded. It reflects the place, time, setting, situation, condition of others, etc. Along with the introduction, a conclusion may also be attached to the recording, which reflects the changes in the situation that occurred during the observation (the appearance of a significant person, etc.).

While maintaining complete objectivity when recording data, the observer must then express his attitude to the phenomena being described and his understanding of their meaning. Such notes must be clearly separated from observation notes and are therefore made in the margins of the diary.

Record standardized observations.

For categorized observations, two recording methods are used - symbolic recording and standard protocol.
When recording in symbols,
each category can be assigned designations - alphabetic, pictograms, mathematical symbols, which reduces recording time.

Standard Protocol

used in cases where the number of categories is limited and the researcher is only interested in the frequency of their occurrence (N. Flanders’ system for analyzing verbal interaction between teacher and student). This form of recording observation results has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the accuracy and completeness of recording manifestations, the disadvantages include the loss of “living tissue of interaction” (M.Ya. Basov).

The result of observation is a “behavioral portrait”. This result is very valuable in medical, psychotherapeutic, and advisory practice. The main parameters when drawing up a behavioral portrait based on observation are as follows:

1) individual features of appearance that are important for the characteristics of the observed person (clothing style, hairstyle, how much he strives in his appearance to “be like everyone else” or wants to stand out, attract attention, whether he is indifferent to his appearance or gives it special meaning, what elements of behavior confirm this, in what situations);

2) pantomime (posture, gait features, gestures, general stiffness or, conversely, freedom of movement, characteristic individual poses);

3) facial expressions (general facial expression, restraint, expressiveness, in which situations facial expressions are significantly enlivened and in which they remain constrained);

4) speech behavior (silence, talkativeness, verbosity, laconism, stylistic features, content and culture of speech, intonation richness, inclusion of pauses in speech, tempo of speech);

5) behavior towards other people (position in a team and attitude towards this, ways of establishing contact, nature of communication - business, personal, situational communication, communication style - authoritarian, democratic, self-oriented, interlocutor-oriented, positions in communication - “on equal terms”, from above, from below, the presence of contradictions in behavior - demonstration of various opposite in meaning ways of behavior in similar situations);

6) behavioral manifestations (in relation to oneself - to appearance, personal belongings, shortcomings, advantages and opportunities);

7) behavior in psychologically difficult situations (when performing a responsible task, in conflict, etc.);

behavior in primary activities (play, study, professional activity);

9) examples of characteristic individual verbal cliches, as well as statements characterizing their horizons, interests, and life experience.

2.4. The use of observation in psychological and pedagogical research

The widespread use of the observation method to study the mental development of children is due to the characteristics of the object of study. A small child cannot be a participant in psychological experiments, unable to give a verbal account of his actions, thoughts, emotions and actions.

The accumulation of data on the mental development of infants and young children has made it possible to combine them into certain systems.

Development tables of A. Gesell

cover four main areas of child behavior: motor skills, language, adaptive and personal-social behavior. Data obtained through direct observation of children's responses to common toys and other objects are supplemented by information reported by the child's mother. American psychologist A. Anastasi[35], in his authoritative manual on psychological testing, notes the lack of standardization of these development tables, but points out their usefulness as a supplement to medical examinations carried out by pediatricians and other specialists.

Methodology E. Frucht

[36] records the development of a child aged from 10 days to 12 months in the following categories: 1) visual orientation reactions; 2) auditory orientation reactions; 3) emotions and social behavior; 4) hand movements and actions with objects; 5) general movements; 6) speech understanding; 7) active speech; skills and abilities.

For each age, a list of categories (from two to seven) and a description of reactions characteristic of this age are given. For example, for the age of 1 month: general movements - lying on his stomach, trying to raise and hold his head (for 5 s); immediately raises his head after stroking his back, holds it for 5 s and lowers it. For the age of 3 months: general movements - lies on the stomach, leaning on the forearms and raising the head high (for 1 minute), immediately raises the head high, leaning on the forearms, the chest is raised, the legs lie quietly, maintains this position for 1 minute; holds the head in an upright position (in the arms of an adult); holds head straight for 30 s. With support under the armpits, firmly rests on a solid support with legs bent at the hip joint; when touching the support, straightens the legs at the knee joint and rests with both feet.

This scheme is not aimed at making a diagnosis, but only allows you to recognize the general picture of development and pay attention to some alarming symptoms.

Development cards by D. Lashley

[37] The author suggests using the following structural headings in the development card:

1) physical development, which covers both general movements, such as walking, climbing, and more subtle ones, for example, coordination of eye and hand movements when drawing and sculpting;

2) communication and speech development. These include expressive language and comprehension; 3) social development and play - include relationships with adults and children, how the child plays, his interests, and the ability to concentrate on these activities; 4) self-reliance and independence - the ability to do without the help of adults while eating, dressing, using the toilet, as well as the ability to help adults, participate in group activities and carry out routine assignments; 5) behavior. Sometimes included in heading 3 (social development) or 4 (independence), but this section is necessary to record the child’s difficulties and problems.

The structure of the development card is a list of points for each area of development. If a skill or skill has been formed, then an icon is placed on the card; if the data is uncertain, a “?” The results are not summed up at the end. This is a way to “photograph” a baby at some point in development for planning further measures for his upbringing, as well as for comparison with future “snapshots” of the same child.

Psychologists and speech therapists use the results of a child's development for the purpose of comparison with average indicators for children of a given age. Educators tend to compare later developmental results with earlier ones. If a child has developmental deviations, they are usually expressed in a decrease in the rate of development. For such children, special development cards are needed, which indicate more detailed stages and steps that the child goes through before mastering certain skills. They are not always marked as completed milestones for healthy children.

When choosing a development card, you should not strive to find a perfect example - one is unlikely to exist. Precisely formulated points on the card are less important than systematic observation of the child. The regularity of observations is called by D. Lashley the “method of time-based samples” and means conducting observations over pre-marked time periods. All entries related to one “slice” must be entered into the card within one week. If this is not possible, observation should be postponed.

Methods for observing “difficult” behavior by D. Lashley

[38] The author believes that in order to understand the child’s problem, one should conduct an observation and then draw a conclusion about how serious it is. It is quite easy to determine three main aspects of observation: 1) frequency - how often the problem occurs; 2) duration - how long the “difficult” behavior lasts in each case or for how long in a day such behavior appears typical; 3) intensity - the problem is not complicated, quite serious or very serious. Separately, it should be said about the frequency of observations. You can observe the child for several days, or you can simply count the number of manifestations of “difficult” behavior. Frequency counting in relation to such behavior sometimes brings unexpected results. Adults may decide that the child is naughty most of the day, but after observation it turns out that there are long periods during the day or even whole days when the child is not “difficult” at all.

Thus, on the basis of observation, it is possible to conduct both fundamental research in the field of child development and a huge number of applied research that helps to reveal and explain various phenomena of child development. Mastering the skills of psychological observation is very important for a teacher, as it allows him to better understand his students.

Table of contents

Psychological observation: advantages and disadvantages

The advantages and disadvantages of a research method such as observation should be assessed in advance, at the planning stage.

The positive aspects of observation include the opportunity to:

identify the smallest details of the issue under study, reveal its versatility;
see and record events and behavioral manifestations directly during their occurrence;
maintain contact between the observer and the subject, which allows you to obtain the most reliable, objective and relevant information of a social nature;
fully understand the motives and meaning of certain behavioral manifestations in different situations, identify their impact on current events;
maintain the researcher’s independence from the observed object, when collecting information, rely not only on the ability, but also the desire to establish contact.

Observation is a relatively inexpensive empirical method. It allows you to quickly obtain the necessary information. The study is easy to organize regardless of the willingness of one or a group of objects to participate in it.

Disadvantages of psychological observation are divided into 2 groups - objective, independent of the observer, and subjective. They are associated with personal characteristics, professional qualities of the researcher, as well as the attitudes of the experiment participants.

The objective disadvantages of observation in psychology include the following:

the inability to use tracking often enough when it is necessary to involve a large number of people being observed;
a limited number of studied processes and related mental phenomena, which leads to a narrowing of the ability to widely generalize the results obtained;
the difficulty, and often impossibility, of completely repeating the study;
the ability to draw only qualitative, but not quantitative conclusions;
frequent occurrence of difficulties with recording and describing the phenomena under study, the need to do this part of the work after the end of the observation;
insufficient opportunity to obtain information about the goals and reasons for recorded behavior;
temporary limitation on the time of unfolding of the event;
the labor-intensive nature of the method, often the need to involve a large number of highly qualified specialists in the research;
high cost in the case of using special sound and video recording equipment.

Psychologists believe that another disadvantage of observation is that the method does not allow one to directly examine all the facts; many areas are inaccessible for research in this way.

Among the subjective disadvantages:

the researcher's ability to influence the situation;
the risk of introducing a subjective opinion or attitudes during the interpretation of the received material, which entails an incorrect interpretation, a discrepancy between the obtained result and the real situation;
unequal social status, cultural differences, dissimilarity in behavioral stereotypes and life positions of the researcher and the subject can affect the interpretation and distort the result;
The researcher’s personality traits may affect his perception of the observed situation, which reduces the quality and reliability of the method. For example, if a specialist develops a feeling of condescension towards an object, it is possible to obtain an exaggeratedly positive result. If a psychologist is unconsciously inclined to see the contrast of the participants in the experiment, then he can ignore their characteristic character traits and behavioral manifestations and notice only those that coincide with his perception.

At a certain moment, a psychologist can leave the observer’s position and become involved in the situation. This is fraught with the fact that he will lose the opportunity to objectively assess what is happening.

If the researcher, even before the start of the experiment, has a clearly formed opinion regarding the subject of the study, this may cause the formation of a certain point of view on the situation. Expectation often arises if the researcher has had contact with the person being observed before the experiment. In such a situation, a shift in emphasis during observation is possible.

Psychologists may make mistakes during observation. They, like the problems listed above, arise in the absence of personal therapy and supervision from a specialist. The most common mistakes are:

Averaging is the fear of making an extreme judgment. It is based on the belief that extreme behavioral manifestations are much less common than low- and moderate-intensity ones. Avoiding polar assessments, researchers average them and make the results uniform. Using a wide range of estimates when studying the intensity of behavioral manifestations helps to avoid this. A psychologist prone to averaging needs to identify in himself the reason for excessive indulgence (it can be provoked by self-doubt, poor knowledge of the subject of research).
Incorrect modeling, in which the researcher uses deduction, is confident that some personality traits are interrelated or contradict each other. Arranging a “logical” conclusion according to the type: a friendly person is good-natured, a good-natured person is trusting or eloquent, an eloquent person is well-educated and educated, an educated person is eloquent, leads to an erroneous result.

The psychologist’s mood during observation can leave an imprint on his perception of the situation, as well as distort the result of the experiment.

The disadvantages of psychological tracking can be overcome by carefully thinking through the program and thoroughly preparing for the work of collecting the necessary information. Monitoring the progress of work by the study organizers also helps to cope with difficulties.

Irina Sherbul

Observation method: features and characteristic disadvantages

The advantages of observation as a marketing research method compared to a survey are the following:

Independence from the object’s readiness to cooperate, from the ability of the subject to verbally express the essence of the matter;
Ability to provide greater objectivity;
Ability to perceive unconscious behavior (choosing goods on store shelves)
Ability to take into account the surrounding environment, especially when observing with instruments.

However, observation also has disadvantages:

It is difficult to ensure representativeness;
Subjectivity of the observer's perception;
The behavior of objects may deviate from natural behavior during open observation (observation effect).

As a rule, observation is never the only method in the research process. To get the most objective and reliable picture, it is used together with other known methods. If observation performs a control function and is used to verify data already obtained during the study, its structure should be as clear and strict as possible. In this case, the observation conditions should be the same as those used to collect the information to be monitored.

Like other methods, observation is not perfect. It has a number of disadvantages. Observation results always raise the question: how representative are the data obtained? This is due to the fact that in most cases direct observation is carried out within a rather limited quantitative group, which calls into question the representativeness of the results. In addition, we should not forget that human perception is limited. This means that the researcher tends to let his guard down and miss important aspects and nuances of the situation under consideration. Practice shows that in most cases, researchers fail to develop knowledge about the motives, attitudes and interests underlying a particular behavior model. However, in some cases this serious limitation can be overcome.

It should also be remembered that the presence of an observer can have a direct impact on the situation being studied and influence the results. Anyone who conducts such an observation must understand that this is a complex method and an extremely labor-intensive process. Even more labor-intensive can be documenting the results of the observation, which sometimes takes longer than the observation itself.

The key to the success of any research is the optimal combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. To obtain the best results, the researcher must remember to maintain a reasonable balance. The main thing is not to be too ambitious and not to extract all possible and unimaginable information from unrepresentative observations and to avoid unnecessary use of quantitative characteristics. These are the two most common shortcomings of modern researchers.

The nature of the environment also plays an important role. Observation carried out in a natural setting (for example, in a shopping mall. If the situation is created artificially, then the observation is considered “laboratory”. The results of both studies are recorded using modern technical equipment or recorded in a notebook at the discretion of the researcher.

All difficulties associated with the use of the observation method are divided into objective and subjective. Objective ones do not depend on the observer. Subjective problems include those related to the personality of the observer. Among the objective difficulties, experts highlight the direct dependence of the possible observation time on the time of the observed situation. Facts of interest and importance are not always in the observer's field of vision. In addition, the personality of the observer himself, his presence at the place of observation and his possible reaction to what is happening can influence the behavior of the group and change the standards of behavior of the observed.