Stereotypes: what they are, types, examples, stereotyping in psychology, how to deal with stereotypes.

We have all encountered stereotypical thinking, and it is perhaps difficult to find a person who has not heard what a stereotype is. Many of us believe that we are not susceptible to this phenomenon and are free from it, but this is practically impossible. Template thinking can manifest itself in small things that are not noticeable at first glance. What are the stereotypes, and is it worth fighting them?

Stereotypes: what are they?

Translated from ancient Greek, the word stereotype is “volumetric imprint,” and this definition says a lot. This was once the name given to the printing cliché used in printing machines.

Currently stereotyped

They call a well-established idea of anything, a stereotyped perception of reality. Stereotypes are embedded deep in the subconscious, becoming automatic judgments leading to automatic actions.

The mentioned phenomenon begins to form in the individual’s childhood, being instilled by those around him - peers, educators, teachers, family, and so on.

By thinking in a certain way in a number of different situations and getting into them, a person does not waste extra energy on analysis. The reaction occurs instantly, without the need for regulation. If we talk about saving mental resources, then this is even convenient. Stereotypes make the world more consistent and predictable, and this reduces the level of innate anxiety. This is one of the rare positive aspects of the phenomenon.

Changes occur regularly in the world, and at times, habitual thinking puts us in awkward or ambiguous situations. Example: ancient people lived with the belief that a person with a different skin color was a stranger and a danger. A potential ill-wisher was dealt with in a barbaric manner or taken prisoner. Echoes of the stereotype exist today, leading to racism and other unpleasant phenomena.

Concept

A person cannot exist outside of society. Being a part of society, he must accept the rules of society and follow them. In particular, people daily encounter stereotypes - simplified ideas about a phenomenon or object.

The term “social stereotype” was coined by W. Lippmann. Since then, this phrase has been given many definitions, depending on the specialization and direction of the author’s activity. Tashfel managed to summarize the research of various authors in this area. He formulated the following conclusions:

a person is characterized by stereotypical thinking, he readily gives simple biased characteristics to certain groups of people;
categorization allows you to maintain a stable socio-political situation over a long period of time;
stereotypes can change along with the political and economic situation, but this happens extremely rarely, as a rule, quite painfully and slowly;
stereotypes appear most clearly in moments of hostility between certain groups;
stereotypes are learned and accepted by people in early childhood, when the process of personality formation begins.

Types of stereotypes

Stereotypes are: negative, positive, neutral, overly simplified, approximate, overgeneralized, accurate. In psychology, these types are distinguished.

Ethnostereotypes

Stereotyped ideas about one’s own or other peoples. Most often they harm positive communication between peoples, leading to negative consequences. When prejudice becomes the norm, there is a basis for discrimination, extreme nationalism, terrorism, and racism. Any person has typical stereotypes about a resident of another state.

In the eyes of the majority:

typical Chinese
: short, talkative, rice-loving;
typical American
: self-confident, smiling, loves burgers;
typical Frenchman
: dude, loving romantic, gourmet;
typical Englishman
: prim, eats oatmeal for breakfast, reserved.

There are many such stereotypes. We laugh with jokes about the Armenian radio, Chukchi, crests, Muscovites. We joke about the slowness of Estonians, the greed of Jews. Jokes based on stereotypes may seem offensive to some, but they do not pose a serious threat. And yet, ethnic stereotypes are comparable to blinders that narrow our horizons and harm ourselves. They prevent you from appreciating the culture of another country, finding good foreign friends, and much more.

Gender

Established ideas about men or women. Such prejudices have been formed for centuries, taking their origins from male hunters and women who guarded the hearth. There were also ancient myths and ballads. In the modern world, gender roles have undergone a number of changes, but stereotypes are firmly rooted in the consciousness of the majority. The most common: “Men don’t cry”, “A woman’s place is in the kitchen” and so on. This is the mindset many of us have.

Individual

They concern an individual. This implies the opinion of an individual, which may to some extent coincide with social stereotypes or completely contradict them. They are formed at the individual and personal level. They are also called socio-psychological.

Social

Refers to a group of people. They help us formulate our understanding of the world. At the same time, we separate “our” group of people from others. This can both develop and depress. Simply put, a social stereotype is a stable and somewhat simplified image of a phenomenon, group of people, event, etc. Example: politicians lie constantly, Italians are passionate and emotional, redheads are obstinate.

Social stereotypes are rarely accurate - more often they are false and perform a reactionary function, distorting people's knowledge and causing discord in interpersonal relationships. At the same time, they play a big role in assessing the world.

Mechanisms for forming public opinion

Given the limited personal experience of the vast majority of people, a social stereotype is an effective mechanism for manipulating public thinking, which is often used by the media, government organizations, and so on. Here are the main ways to form public opinion:

"Shortcuts" A certain image of an ideal person is created, to which the audience is tailored. Typically, the mechanism is used to eliminate competition or to subjugate large masses of people.
"Pleasant uncertainty." The essence of this mechanism is that the idea presented to society does not have a clear and clearly defined meaning. Nevertheless, it evokes positive associations in the vast majority of people.
"Majority opinion" To convince the audience that an opinion is correct, the trick is used that the vast majority of people hold this opinion.

Stereotyping in psychology

Stereotyping refers to classification, evaluation and perception, the basis for which is the common judgments of a social group. Such assessments are based on stable stereotypes and information about similar characteristics. Example: “All Spaniards are crazy about tango.” It is one of the main characteristics of interpersonal and intergroup perception, as well as a reflection of the affective and schematized coloration generally characteristic of this form of perception.

In psychology, this term refers to the process of attributing similar characteristics to members of a certain group, without sufficient understanding of the differences between them. Based on simple general psychological mechanisms, stereotyping has become a complex socio-psychological phenomenon responsible for many functions: justifying potential negative attitudes towards other groups, maintaining personal identification, and others.

Functions of social groups

American sociologist Neil Joseph Smelser identifies the following functions of social groups:

Socialization function: only by being a member of a social group is an individual able to survive, start a family and raise children. A person cannot live alone outside of society; he will be doomed.
Instrumentality function : a person cannot do without work, he must carry out some kind of activity that allows him to provide himself and his family with everything they need.
An expressive function in which members of a social group must satisfy the need for respect, trust and goodwill towards each other.
The supporting function, which aims people to unite in groups in difficult situations and determine joint actions.

One way or another, stereotypes formed in social groups with certain functions are not always true and often interfere with living a full life. Therefore, before succumbing to this or that judgment, you should understand yourself and your own concepts.

Examples of stereotypes

If you don't fully understand what stereotypes are, consider many examples:

Men are guided by logic, and women are guided by emotions.
A man is obliged to support his woman.
Blondes are stupid.
A woman can think about several topics at the same time, but a man cannot.
A woman expects love from a relationship, and a man expects sex.
All women dream of getting married.
All women dream of children.
Men are smarter than women.
Boys are not allowed to wear pink things.
It is not normal for a boy to show interest in dolls.
Homosexuals cannot raise a child with dignity.
All women manipulate men.
Women tend to be monogamous, while men tend to be polygamous.
It is shameful for a man to do household chores; this is a woman’s lot.
A woman is ashamed to support a family; this is a man’s lot.
A normal man cannot be shy.
Mothers should take care of babies.
Every Chinese can make a telephone.
Women who dress beautifully hope to “attract a male.”
All gypsies are swindlers.
Women themselves provoke rapists.
A woman should not argue with her husband.
The husband must make decisions, and the woman must carefully guide him.
Men should have higher salaries.
The man doesn't cry.
Old people are grumpy and annoying.
There are only drunks in Russia.
All men cheat.
All teenagers go through a “difficult age”.
Every housewife should be able to cook borscht.
Women have no place in serious positions.
Hindus love to sing and dance.
All lesbians are masculine.
Americans mostly eat fast food.
Women should strive to become good wives and mothers.
Beaten by your husband? The woman provoked.
Has your wife left? They don't leave good husbands.
All normal women love children.
Women who have not given birth to children regret in old age, they are all unhappy and no one needs them.
She gave birth - there will be someone to give a glass of water in old age.
All politicians are thieves.
It's always snowing in Siberia.
It is impossible to get rich honestly.
If you didn’t serve, you’re not a man.
A woman can be either smart or beautiful.
Women driving are dangerous to society.
It is natural for a woman to know how to cook.
The British cannot live a day without tea and oatmeal.
All Italians are loving.
All Asians are alike.
India is full of all kinds of infection and dirt.
It's always cold in Russia.
It is natural for a man to understand technology.
The wife takes her husband's surname, and not vice versa.
Women are prone to commercialism.

Gender stereotype: men don't cry

And men still try not to cry, so as not to be branded a weakling, “not to be a woman.” They push stress inside themselves, suppress emotions, and exhaust their nervous system. As a result, they experience difficulties communicating with loved ones and suffer from cardiovascular diseases, and some die at an early age from a heart attack.

Tears help get rid of stress hormones, this is a natural reaction of the body. It is stupid and cruel to deprive a person of the ability to cry based on gender. Presumably, this stereotype in our society was formed against the background of the war; the country needed soldiers - biomass without human weaknesses. Suppression of the emotional sphere from childhood subsequently made men more suitable for serving for the benefit of their homeland.

Stereotypes that interfere with life, how to deal with them

In some cases, we can say that stereotypes help to live, but more often they interfere with a full life, limiting mental activity, not letting consciousness go beyond the confines of a stereotyped worldview. An example is the stereotype: “It’s good where we are not.” Guided by it, a person is convinced that it is impossible to exist comfortably in his habitat, which leaves an imprint on his condition. In his perception: all other countries are prospering, and the people living there are much happier.

Such ridiculous thoughts can quickly drive you into depression. Guided by a stereotype, a person does not make attempts to find happiness and harmony, being convinced that this will not bear fruit. And yet you cannot blindly follow template phrases you accidentally hear. The aforementioned stereotype about the ghostly wonderful life “Where We Are Not” makes one think that someone has to make a minimum of effort to live a quality life. A feeling of envy, irritation, and dissatisfaction with one’s “failed” life arises.

The main method of combating stereotypes: doubt them, analyze them. Do not blindly believe stereotyped judgments, question them, check the data, and form your own opinion. Gradually, you will discard established stereotypes and carry out a kind of prevention of the emergence of new prejudices.

Think about what stereotypes you use regularly. Look among them for those that have no real evidence to support them. Example: “All blondes are stupid.” Once you start studying the information, you will see that among women with blond hair there are many doctors of science, talented doctors, honorary teachers and many other personalities who are in no way characterized by the definition of “stupid”.

Look for a refutation of other statements that have no basis. An example of a stereotype: “What is the price, so is the product.” You might be surprised, but you can find a lot of high-quality and stylish things at low prices. At the same time, expensive purchases can disappoint after the first purchase, raising suspicions that they are defective or counterfeit.

A person can be guided for a long period by an absurd stereotype that darkens his life and not even notice it. Think about whether there are such people in your perception? If you can’t lose faith in them, try meditation. It will teach you to think separately from society, your immediate environment, and draw your own conclusions. Try to study known stereotypes and form your own opinion about them.

Think about the actions you perform automatically. Take some time to analyze them. Try to pay attention to your actions and analyze which of them are dictated by stereotypes. Learn not to depend on public opinion and develop your own ideas.

How to write a term paper on speech therapy

07.09.2010 257505

These guidelines are compiled to help students gain an understanding of the content and structure of coursework in speech therapy.

Logopedia of pedagogical science that studies anomalies of speech development with normal hearing, explores the manifestations, nature and mechanisms of speech disorders, develops the scientific basis for overcoming and preventing them means of special training and education.

The subject of speech therapy as a science is speech disorders and the process of training and education of persons with speech disorders.

The object of study is a person suffering from a speech disorder.

The main task of speech therapy as a science is the study, prevention and elimination of various types of speech disorders.

Coursework in speech therapy is a student's scientific and experimental research. This type of educational activity, provided for by the educational and professional program and curriculum, contributes to the acquisition of skills in working with literature, analyzing and summarizing literary sources in order to determine the range of insufficiently studied problems, determining the content and methods of experimental research, processing skills and qualitative analysis of the results obtained. The need to complete coursework in speech therapy is due to the updating of knowledge concerning the content, organization, principles, methods and techniques of speech therapy work.

As a rule, during their studies, students must write two term papers - theoretical and practical.

The first course work should be devoted to the analysis and synthesis of general and specialized literature on the chosen topic. Based on this analysis, it is necessary to justify and develop a method of ascertaining (diagnostic) experiment.

In the second course work, it is necessary to provide an analysis of the results obtained during the ascertaining experiment, as well as determine the directions and content of speech therapy work, and select adequate methods and techniques of correction.

So, let’s present the general requirements for the content and design of coursework in speech therapy.

The initial and most important stage of working on a course project is the choice of a topic, which is either proposed by the supervisor or chosen by the student independently from a list of topics that are consistent with the areas of scientific research of the department.

Each topic can be modified, considered in different aspects, but taking into account a theoretical and practical approach. Having chosen a topic, the student needs to think through in detail its specific content, areas of work, practical material, etc., which should be reflected both in the formulation of the topic and in the further construction of the study. It should be recalled that the chosen topic may not only have a purely theoretical orientation, for example: “Dysarthria. Characteristics of the defect”, “Classification of dysgraphia”, but also take into account the practical significance of the problem under consideration, for example: “Speech therapy work on speech correction for dysarthria”. It should also be taken into account that when formulating a topic, excessive detail should be avoided, for example: “Formation of prosodic components of speech in preschoolers of the sixth year of life attending a preschool institution for children with severe speech impairments.”

The course work includes such mandatory parts as: introduction, three chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendix.

The text of the term paper begins with the title page . An example of its design can be seen here.

Then the content of the work is given, in which the names of chapters, paragraphs, and sections are formulated in strict accordance with the content of the thesis. An example of its design can be seen here.

In the text, each subsequent chapter and paragraph begins on a new page. At the end of each chapter, the materials are summarized and conclusions are formulated.

The introduction reveals the relevance of the problem under consideration in general and the topic being studied in particular; the problem, subject, object, and purpose of the study are defined. In accordance with the goal and hypothesis, objectives and a set of research methods aimed at achieving the objectives must be defined.

The relevance of the topic lies in reflecting the current level of pedagogical science and practice, meeting the requirements of novelty and usefulness.

When defining the research problem, it is important to indicate what practical tasks it will help to implement in training and educating people with speech pathology.

The object of research is understood as certain aspects of pedagogical reality, perceived through a system of theoretical and practical knowledge. The ultimate goal of any research is to improve this object.

The subject of research is some part, property, element of an object, i.e. the subject of research always indicates a specific aspect of the object that is to be studied and about which the researcher wants to gain new knowledge. An object is a part of an object.

You can give an example of the formulation of the object, subject and problem of research:

– The object of the study is the speech activity of preschool children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.

– The subject of the study is the features of intonation speech of children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.

– The research problem is to determine effective directions for speech therapy work on the formation of intonation expressiveness of speech in the system of correctional intervention.

The purpose of the study contributes to the specification of the object being studied. The goal of any research is to solve a specific problem. The goal is specified in tasks taking into account the subject of research.

The research objectives are formulated in a certain sequence, which determines the logic of the research. The research objectives are set on the basis of a theoretical analysis of the problem and an assessment of the state of its solution in practice.

The first chapter is an analysis of literary sources, which examines the state of this problem in historical and modern aspects, and presents the most important theoretical principles that formed the basis of the study.

When writing the first chapter, you should pay attention to the fact that the text of the course work must be written in a scientific style. When presenting scientific material, it is necessary to comply with the following requirements:

– Specificity – a review of only those sources that are necessary to disclose only a given topic or solve only a given problem;

– Clarity – which is characterized by semantic coherence and integrity of individual parts of the text;

– Logicality – which provides for a certain structure of presentation of the material;

– Reasoning – evidence of thoughts (why this and not otherwise);

– Precision of wording, excluding ambiguous interpretation of the authors’ statements.

A literary review of the state of the problem being studied should not be reduced to a consistent presentation of literary sources. It should present a generalized description of the literature: highlight the main directions (currents, concepts, points of view), analyze in detail and evaluate the most fundamental works of representatives of these directions.

When writing a work, the student must correctly use literary materials, make references to the authors and sources from which the results of scientific research are borrowed. Failure to provide required references will reduce your coursework grade.

As a rule, in coursework on speech therapy, references to literary sources are formatted as follows: the number of the cited source in the general list of references is placed in square brackets. For example: General speech underdevelopment is a speech pathology in which there is a persistent lag in the formation of all components of the language system: phonetics, vocabulary and grammar [17].

When using quotations, in square brackets, in addition to indicating the source number, the page number from which this excerpt is taken is indicated, for example: Speech rhythm is based on a physiological and intellectual basis, since, firstly, it is directly related to the rhythm of breathing. Secondly, being an element that performs a communicative function, “correlates with meaning, i.e. controlled intellectually” [23, P.40].

However, course work should not be of a purely abstract nature, so you should not abuse the unreasonable abundance of citations. Quoting should be logically justified, convincing and used only when really necessary.

In the second chapter , devoted to experimental research, the organization should be described and the program of the ascertaining experiment should be presented. The survey methodology, as a rule, consists of a description of several series of tasks, with detailed instructions, visual and lexical material, the procedure for completing tasks by experiment participants, and scoring criteria. This chapter also provides a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the results obtained.

When analyzing the results of an experiment, it is necessary to use a scoring system. Examples of various criteria for quantitative and qualitative assessment are presented in the following works:

– Glukhov V.P. Formation of coherent speech in preschool children with general speech underdevelopment. - M.: Arkti, 2002. - 144 p.

– Fotekova T.A. Test methodology for diagnosing oral speech of primary schoolchildren. - M.: Arkti, 2000. - 56 p.

– Levchenko I.Yu. Pathopsychology: Theory and practice. - M.: Academy, 2000. - 232 p.

In order to visually present the results obtained during the experimental study, it is recommended to use tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. Histograms can be used in a variety of ways - columnar, cylindrical, planar, volumetric, etc. An example of the design of tables, figures, and histograms can be found here.

The third chapter provides a rationale for the proposed methods and techniques and reveals the content of the main stages of correctional work.

The conclusion contains a summary of the material presented and the main conclusions formulated by the author.

The bibliography must contain at least 25 sources. The list includes bibliographic information about the sources used in preparing the work. An example of its design can be seen here.

In the application you can present bulky tables or illustrations, examination protocols, observation records, products of activity (drawings, written works of children), notes from speech therapy classes, etc.

The volume of one course work must be at least 30 pages of typewritten text.

In general, coursework in speech therapy is the basis for a future thesis, in which the study of the begun problem can be continued, but from the standpoint of a different approach or a comparative analysis of the disorders being studied in different age categories of people with different types of speech disorders.

The content and format of theses in speech therapy can be found here.

Literature:

1. How to write a term paper on speech therapy: Methodological recommendations. Educational and methodological manual / Comp. Artemova E.E., Tishina L.A. / Ed. Orlova O.S. – M.: MGOPU, 2008. – 35 p.

2. Research work of students in the system of higher professional pedagogical education (specialty 031800 - Speech therapy). Methodological recommendations for completing the thesis / Compiled by. L.V. Lopatina, V.I. Lipakova, G.G. Golubeva. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen, 2002. - 140 p.