3 year crisis: 4 main signs

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Just yesterday your child was sweet and obedient, but today it’s as if he has been replaced.

Maybe the child has a 3-year-old crisis? What are the signs to understand this?

In this article, you will learn about the 4 main signs of a 3-year-old crisis, and also find out what the essence of this crisis is, how long it can drag on, how to help a child during this period, and how parents should behave.

One of the principles of a conscious parent is: “I interact with my child consciously. I strive to understand all the true reasons for his and my manifestations.”

See 11 principles of a conscious parent here.

Therefore, when my own child had a 3-year-old crisis, I studied many articles, books, and webinars. The advice of psychologist Lyudmila Vladimirovna Petranovskaya turned out to be the most valuable and useful for me; they really helped me.

I view the growing up of a child as a process of mutual (both for him and for parents) spiritual development. I hope that Lyudmila Vladimirovna’s thoughts and advice, revealed with such a vision in mind, will help you too.

What is the essence of the crisis of 3 years?

The essence of this crisis is that the child ends the period of symbiotic fusion with the mother, when they are mentally almost one.

By this age, the child gains freedom of movement, learns to express his thoughts and emotions, already knows how to handle different objects, play, serve himself, eat with a spoon, get dressed, and go to the potty.

This is why the child’s sense of separateness and ability to be independent sharply increases. He faces the question of realizing that he is a separate person. “It’s not my mother who is my continuation, and it’s not me who is the continuation of my mother, but I am a separate person.”

How can a child realize that he is and there are separate people? Awareness of your will!

During the 3-year-old crisis, this is what happens: the child becomes aware of his free will. What does a person who has realized his free will say? "Don't want!" or not"!

Little princesses

A girl, unlike a boy, develops more intensively, her feelings and emotions become more acute. It’s easier to contact girls, but here you need to take into account their cunning. Her mother is an ideal and example for the girl; together they find many topics to talk about - discussing doll outfits, recipes for delicious baked goods, caring for indoor flowers. The role of the father in raising his daughter is to positively influence her communication with the opposite sex. It is necessary to constantly monitor the daughter’s aspirations and capabilities and promote her maximum development.

Stubbornness - how it manifests itself

Offended beauty

Parental education is a significant contribution to the development of their child; the character and attitude towards the world around them depends on this contribution.

And if you don’t start seriously raising a child from the age of 3 and after this period, otherwise there is always a chance of completely ruining your child. In any case, children should be raised in a full-fledged family, where love and harmony reign. The daughter must prepare for the future role of a mother, and see her loved one in the role of a father, and if there is no man in the family, then such a situation can be inherited. Rejection of a spouse and divorce are problems that have their roots in early childhood. You need to find your own unique key for the girl, which will help open her heart to her parents, because trust in the family is the main thing.

Negativism is the main manifestation of the 3-year crisis

What to do if your three-year-old is aggressive?

A lot of parental experiences are associated with the aggression of a three-year-old. This may be aggression directed at parents or other children.

You will greatly help your child if you teach him to show firmness and will in a way that does not result in aggression. It is important to transform aggression and teach the child to behave constructively, not destructively.

The manifestation of firmness and will by a child is absolutely normal. During this period, the child learns to defend his borders, his territory.

While the cub is small, he is freed from the desire to defend his boundaries. What can he stand up for when he is in diapers? Nothing.

At this age, the child hopes that his adults will take care of him and protect him. He cannot take care of himself yet. Therefore, if a small child is in some kind of stressful situation, the only thing he can do is stay in place and cry loudly so that adults can quickly find and save him. This is baby behavior.

By the age of 3, the ability to defend one’s borders, one’s desires, and fight for one’s interests begins to develop.

Without the ability to defend one’s boundaries, even an adult can find it difficult to live.

During the crisis of 3 years, the child is just learning to defend his boundaries. In the same way, when he learns to eat with a spoon, this is not the first time he ends up in his mouth. The child moves the spoon back and forth until he gets all over it.

Several weeks pass when, after each meal, the child is covered in porridge from head to toe, and only something gets into his mouth.

It must be remembered that the development of a skill occurs as the inhibition of unnecessary movements.

Gradually, the psyche matures, “paths are laid out,” unnecessary movements are inhibited, and over time, the only correct movement of getting into the mouth is developed.

It’s the same with aggression and defending boundaries. The child does a lot of unnecessary and awkward things, protests for stupid reasons. Where he could have said “no,” he collapses on the floor and screams. Where you could say “I don’t like it,” he says, “Get out of here, you’re bad.”

The child is trying to build protection for his personal boundaries using unscientific poking. So it's quite tiring, but it's a very important period to go through.

Gradually, with your help, the child will learn to transform his aggression.

If a three-year-old child hits someone, you need to stop it by simply taking the child away or taking it away. At this age, talking to a child is ineffective. He won't understand much yet.

Of course, you can and should begin to talk through situations, preparing the child for the next period of his development.

When the child gets older (4-5 years old), it will be important for him to do everything right, as adults want, to be a good child. Then all these conversations will be relevant.

Talking won't help a three-year-old, he wants everything, so it's easier to stop him, take him away, distract him.

When a child shows aggression at home, under no circumstances should you leave him or her in another room. It will be better if you hug the child, say out loud his feelings “you are angry because...” (and name the child’s feelings).

Gender characteristics

When overcoming the crisis period of this age, parents should take into account the gender characteristics of their children.

Girls

By the age of 3, they speak much better than boys, so during a crisis they use their verbal abilities for manipulation. In this they must be immediately limited: clearly define what is permissible to say and what is not.

Girls have well-developed auditory perception, so she needs to say all requests loudly and clearly.

Girls are more emotional, which is why they are the ones who most often throw tantrums and act up during a crisis. Given this psychological feature, parents need to direct their overwhelming emotions in the right direction. For example, delegate some of the household chores, get involved in modeling or drawing.

Boys

By the age of 3, boys cannot always express their overwhelming emotions in words. Therefore, they result in aggression and isolation. To prevent this, talk to your baby every day about what happened, what he feels and what he wants.

Boys have well-developed visual perception, and they ignore half the information. Therefore, it is better to show him everything clearly. Don’t waste time saying “Put the toys away!”, but bring them to them and show them where to put them.

By the age of 3, boys already develop a need to explore the world around them. Therefore, they run around a lot, look into every basement and open hatch, climb trees and fences, put something in sockets, disassemble (= break) household appliances. To avoid injury, parents must clearly define territorial restrictions for them.

How can you help your child get through this period most effectively?

It is worth remembering that you and your child are teachers for each other. You teach him to master this world, and he teaches you to become aware of yourself. What are you like? How do you look at this difficult period and interaction with your child?

If you start thinking about the 3-year-old crisis not as a problem, but as an age-related task that the child is now solving, it will become much easier psychologically.

The child must learn to transform aggression, defend boundaries, and insist on his own. This is necessary for adult life.

If you look at all this NOT as a child deliberately and out of spite poisoning our lives, but as a period of learning, it will be easier.

Let us once again recall the example of teaching a child to eat independently. You could spoon feed your child all your life, but then he would never learn to feed himself. Therefore, we need to go through this period when after every lunch we have to wash the child, the high chair, and the kitchen. There is no other way to teach a child to feed himself.

It’s the same with the crisis of 3 years. We must remember that a child does not seek to poison our lives, manipulate, and does not seek power. He's just learning.

To learn to conflict, to direct one’s aggression, to insist on one’s own, a person needs a partner, he must learn from someone.

During this period, the parent acts as a partner and teacher, so that the child learns to protest, be stubborn, conflict, sometimes give in, sometimes insist on his own.

Therefore, if a parent thinks of himself as a coach, partner, teacher, it will be psychologically easier for him. He will not consider himself a victim or show aggression. The parent will understand that the child is now learning.

What can a parent do to be a good coaching partner?

He should give the child the maximum variety of reactions. What does it mean? This is the next paragraph of this article.

Symptoms of a three-year crisis

In child psychology, there are 7 symptoms of a three-year crisis:

Negativism. You ask your daughter or son to do something - he refuses. Reason: the initiator of the proposal is not a crumb;
Obstinacy. The child protests against the way of life. In families where there is no single line of upbringing, the manifestations are more acute. The reason is similar to the first option;
Stubbornness. A child in a three-year crisis makes a decision and insists on it. They offer him an interesting alternative - he stands his ground. Reason: it is important for the baby to have his opinions and desires recognized;
Self-will. The child strives to do everything on his own. It doesn't always work out. His parents do it for him - they run into hysterics. Reason: deprived the child of the joy of independent activity;
Riot. You decide or do for a crumb with the best intentions - you come across a stormy protest. Reason: he wants it himself;
Depreciation. During a three-year crisis, the child’s attitude towards his favorite toys and people changes. He tears up books, breaks toys, calls people names, bites. Reason: explores the boundaries of what is permitted;
Despotism. The child tries to force adults to do what he wants. This is good. He is studying and does not know how to achieve his goal correctly.

Manifestations of a three-year crisis are called seven stars.

What should a child learn during a 3-year-old crisis?

Let us remember people who react to any conflict with stubbornness and do not recognize other points of view. In any situation, they always insist on their own and do not recognize agreements or compromises. “I said that, period!” If you have encountered such people, then you know that you often want to minimize communication with them.

There are other people who are commonly called wimps. These are people whose function of defending their boundaries and interests seems to be turned off. They will never say “no”, they always give in, everyone “rides” on them. “It’s okay, I’ll be patient, I’ll wait, I’ll get by,” “It doesn’t matter what I want. What matters is what others want."

The life of people who do not know how to defend their interests can hardly be called prosperous. Such people usually do not command respect. They often enter into relationships with psychopathic people who need complete power.

Most likely, none of us wants for our child either the fate of a “stubborn sheep” or the fate of a “rag” on which everyone wipes their feet.

Everyone wants the child to become an effective adult in the future. What is an adult like in a conflict? This is a person who has a set of options in stock, a “deck”.

If there is a conflict with a loved one, with a colleague, with a salesperson, the person opens the deck and looks at what can be done in this particular situation.

“How important is this conflict to me? Maybe he’s not worth the hassle, and it’s easier to give in easily without getting upset?”

The child does not need to pronounce all these reactions, he must see them.

It is necessary for the child to see your reaction when you say “No, period” (there are situations in life when it is impossible to give in, for example, if a child wants to play on the roadway).
Also, the child should see situations when you give in easily. “Do you want a green plate and not a blue one? I already put lunch on the blue plate, but I see that you really want it, let me put lunch on the green plate.”
The child must see that there are situations when you agree. “Yes, I see that you want to watch a cartoon. Let’s watch it, and then we’ll go somewhere.”

It is important that this is a deck of reactions so that everything is not the same.

There is no need to be afraid that the variety of reactions will lead to confusion in the child’s head. After all, all this will not be random, you will not chaotically choose reactions at random, your reactions will naturally correlate with the situation.

It is important that a concession (like a prohibition) should not dislodge the parent from the basic position of the parent - the position of dominant care. That is, on the one hand, the behavior of a parent is dominance: the parent dominates the relationship with the child. On the other hand, it is a caring and loving behavior.

Examples when the position of dominant care is violated:

There are parents who are terrified of their child's tears. Most often, this may be due to one’s own childhood experiences, for example, when the youngest child cried and the parents did not approach him; or if the parents scolded the child for crying, etc.

If a parent cannot stand the child’s tears, then during the child’s “concerts” he begins to get scared. The child sees that the parent is afraid of him and thinks: “What is so terrible happening to me that the parent himself is afraid of me?” Such parental reactions will not add to the child’s ability to cope with himself.

In the above example, dominance “sags”, the adult ceases to be an adult.

In some situations, care “sags” when the parent cannot stand the separation of feelings and actions. What does it mean? For example, an adult may be afraid to go to the dentist, but goes anyway. In this case there is a separation of feelings and actions.

Young children do not yet share feelings and actions.

Sometimes a parent also cannot separate feelings and actions (usually due to his childhood experience), so he believes that, for example, if you need to forbid a child something, you must first get angry.

Or a parent thinks that it is impossible to prohibit a child from cartoons, they must first scold him. “Oh, what are you, you should only watch cartoons!”

That is, you need a reason to prohibit something, you first need to get angry. When you are angry, you can prohibit, when you are not angry, you cannot.

To ban and feel sorry for a child for being upset because of the ban is unbearable for such a parent, because he cannot separate feelings and actions.

You could simply say: “You won’t watch cartoons anymore, because you’ve been watching for a long time. I understand that you are offended, because you wanted to watch more. Let me hug you, I’ll be sorry, so that you have the opportunity to console yourself.”

It is important that prohibitions and permissions come from a position of dominant concern.

If a parent allows something to a child, then he allows it from a position of strength and care, and not because the child has done it and wants to give it and get rid of it. It turns out like this: “I don’t think this is right now, but if you want it so much, go ahead.” This is not a dominant role.

The same goes for the ban. Not “You’re a brat, how many times do I have to tell you,” but “Sorry, I understand that you want to, but you can’t.”

The parent, from a position of love and care, sets boundaries for the child so that he can develop safely and gain the experiences he needs without harming himself or others.

The parent sets boundaries with love and wisdom, without forgetting the dignity of the child and respect for him.

Diagnosis: “adulting crisis”

But hysterics do not go away in a day or a week. Then moms and dads get angry and look for reasons for disobedience in the little one’s bad character, and conduct an audit of upbringing methods.

Real panic begins when neither the stick nor the carrot method works with the child. By this point, parents are mentally at their limit. They are torn by mixed feelings when anger, tears and irritation border on growing anxiety for the health and future of the baby.

Here, many adults turn to pediatric neurologists for help. And this is correct, since behavioral deviations can be a sign of diseases of the nervous system and more. But it is more likely that the doctor will examine the child and reassure the parents by making a “crisis diagnosis.”

Doctors say that a child’s three-year crisis is a stage of growing up necessary for his full development. And you need to worry more quickly when a baby at this age is phlegmatic, submissive and lacking initiative.

Errors in parental behavior during this period

Some parents are very indignant at the manifestation of their child’s temper and respond to any aggression with even greater aggression. They not only say “no,” but they can also slap you in the face.

Of course, a child can be very intimidated, and he will tremble at the mere thought of trying to express a protest. By this behavior, by the end of the 3-year crisis, you can “break” the child and his free will.

Parents need to remember that the child has the right to free choice. Free choice is the basis for his Soul to gain experience. The task of parents is to carefully help the child have this experience as safely as possible.

Children are not our property. We are only guides for the Soul of a child at the initial stage of its journey into the World. Being such a guide is a great joy and responsibility. There is no need to “beat” a child, you need to help him be himself at all periods of his life.

Problems can also begin if the mother demonstrates to the child that when he is angry and scandalous, she feels bad and suffers. This can lead a child to neurosis, and he will be terrified of conflict situations.

Age limits of the crisis period

This stage of personality development is only conventionally called the “three-year crisis.” The first symptoms of disobedience are sometimes noted as early as 18-20 months, but they reach their greatest intensity in the period from 2.5 to 3.5 years.

The duration of this phenomenon is also conditional and is usually only a few months. However, in the event of unfavorable developments, the crisis may drag on for a couple of years.

The degree of severity of psycho-emotional reactions, as well as the duration of the period, depends on such characteristics as:

children's temperament (in choleric people the signs appear more clearly);
parenting style (parental authoritarianism exacerbates manifestations of children's negativism);
features of the relationship between mother and child (the closer the relationship, the easier it is to overcome negative aspects).

Indirect conditions can also influence the intensity of emotional reactions. For example, it will be more difficult for a child to survive a crisis if the peak of the phenomenon occurs during adaptation to kindergarten or the appearance of a younger brother or sister in the family.

Are setbacks normal in a child’s development during a 3-year crisis?

During this period, it often happens that the child begins to refuse to do what he knows how to do. He asks to feed him, although he has been able to feed himself for a long time, does not want to dress or undress, etc.

Developmental regression in children is normal. Sometimes children seem to go back in age.

This may be due to some crisis in the child’s life, for example, with the birth of another child in the family, moving, changing teachers in kindergarten, etc. It may also be due to some physiological issues (for example, after illness, during the period of vitamin deficiency, etc.).

Regression in children is often observed before a sharp breakthrough in development.

At such moments, it is important that parents do not get scared, and this regression was once even supported. It’s okay that a child asks for help, although he knows how to do it himself.

We also know how to do a lot of things, but we really like it when someone takes care of us. Because it’s about a feeling of security, about comfort, about care.

There is no need to be afraid of regression. Sometimes you can dress the child yourself, feed him with a spoon, hold him in your arms like a little one.

No child will continue to act like a child any more than he needs to. As soon as he is satisfied, filled, as soon as some anxiety passes, he will say: “I myself.”

It is important to remain calm. “Do you want to be small? It’s great, you’re my little one.” You need to play along with the child.

Children quickly get enough, but then they become even more independent and active.

When does it end?

On average, by the age of 3.5 years, a child calms down, and his behavior becomes more or less adequate.
Hysterics happen less and less often, negativism disappears completely . New rules, attitudes and lines of behavior appear.

But, as they say, there are exceptions to any rule. For some children, behavior problems do not disappear even after a year. This is a deviation from the norm. Here it is worth talking not about the crisis, but about problems in education. In such cases, the help of a specialist will not be superfluous.

How to understand that the crisis of 3 years has been successfully completed?

Are there any beacons that parents can use to determine that the 3-year crisis has been successfully completed?

Yes. Sometimes parents suddenly notice over time that the number of conflicts and scandals has decreased in recent weeks. Sometimes the child seemed to get up, brush himself off, come to his senses and become docile again.

By the age of 4–5, children often become loyal again, ready to obey. They want to be liked by adults and become kind and sweet. If the child became like this, did not get angry and did not shut down, then everything went well.

One of the main conclusions that a child needs to draw before the end of the 3-year-old crisis is that conflict does not destroy relationships.

That you can quarrel with your parents and be angry with each other, experience different emotions, but at the same time continue to love and know that the relationship is being restored.

The child’s task by the age of 4–5 is to learn that if he is angry with his mother or someone else, this does not mean that he does not love them. And understand that if mom is angry, this does not mean that she will refuse him. This is called ambivalence (contradiction) of feelings.

By the age of 5–6 years, the ability of the psyche to maintain ambivalence should mature. “I can be angry with you, but I can love you at the same time.”

A three-year-old can't do that. Everything is separate for him: when he is angry, he is ready for anything. It seems to him that adults do the same.

An unfavorable way out of the crisis can be described using the following example:

Often adults, when communicating with their children, reproduce some models of how their parents behaved with them. In turn, they also do not go through this fork in overcoming the conflict with the child, so that the relationship can experience conflict. And it begins: “Until you apologize, don’t come closer!”

What do adults do when they say this? They delegate responsibility for the relationship to the child.

It turns out that they are telling the child: “Now you decide when we will be together again.” That is, they unwittingly give the child too much responsibility and power so that he becomes the dominant individual.

The child is not ready for such a role, but if he is so persistently asked to become dominant, he may agree. In this case, the child suddenly begins to “pump his rights” with or without reason, constantly break all the rules, disobey, and defend his own all the time.

The child does not develop a period of loyalty and desire to please adults.

This happens when adults do not cover up the conflict with their affection. It is very important that after a conflict, adults are the first to make peace, the first to come up and hug, and make it clear that the relationship has not gone away.

This is the most important skill for life, on which the child’s future life will depend to a certain extent - the ability to overcome conflict with relationships (so that the conflict does not destroy the relationship).

There are people who did not learn this lesson as children - and at the slightest conflict they immediately break off the relationship.

Little stubborn guy

Negativism is a characteristic feature of the 3-year-old crisis. This attitude is expressed towards the requests of the adult and his personal person. Often, this attitude of a child manifests itself only towards one family member, while he obeys others. This trait also appears so that a 3-year-old child can force his parents to fulfill his demands by demonstrating his power through aggression.

3 year crisis - symptoms

Raising a child from the age of 3 proceeds differently in different families. Some parents also begin to react extremely negatively to the antics of their grown-up child, trying to show the little manipulator his place. They use pressure and physical force. In other families, obedience to the child is customary; every demand is fulfilled there, as long as he does not bother his parents over trifles. Here it is important to find a middle ground in order to direct education in the right direction.

Hysteria at 3 years old - a way to express your opinion

There are the following useful tips for parents raising a 3-year-old child:

It is important to be patient and assess each situation as soberly as possible. You need to understand the baby’s feelings, skillfully using his whims against him. For example, if a child refuses to put toys away, deftly scattering them on the floor, then you can ask him never to collect them again.
All prohibitions, strict requirements, and whims have low effectiveness, so you need to switch the child’s attention to an activity that is more exciting and interesting for him.
You shouldn’t react too violently to a boy’s hysterical attacks. You should not indulge any child’s desire, which is followed by a series of hysterics. Otherwise, a 3-year-old child may develop the habit of starting a tantrum for any reason. You can easily divert the attention of a hysterical boy to an interesting thing or toy.
Raising a 3-year-old child should be completely the same; dad should not allow the child to do what mom forbade, and, on the contrary, these rules especially need to be clearly explained to the kindest grandparents.
A boy and a girl need to be raised in an atmosphere of love and sincerely praised for good deeds. And if a child suddenly stumbles and does the wrong thing, you need to explain why you shouldn’t do that.

Manifestations of protest at 3 years old

Advice for parents of three-year-olds

Tip #1:

The most important thing is to remember that the 3-year crisis is just a period that will end.

Sometimes it seems that now it will always be like this. This is wrong.

This is a period, many moments of which you will later remember with a smile and laughter.

Tip #2:

It is important to know that your child does not do anything to spite you.

The child at this time does not have such a skill. Those parts of his psyche have not yet matured, thanks to which he can look at the situation from another person’s point of view.

Piaget's experiment proved that before the age of 6, a child does not know how to manipulate. Just as he cannot lift a 15 kg dumbbell, he cannot manipulate. Therefore, no fantasies that the child will sit on his head, become insolent, or twist ropes out of you lead to nothing except anxiety for the parents and their withdrawal from the dominant position.

There is no need to overwhelm yourself with such fantasies.

Remember that you are a coach. Somewhere you need to show a sense of humor, somewhere you need to be creative, somewhere you just need to inhale, exhale and switch...

You need to adapt and just get through this time. But then you will get a very obedient and loyal four-year-old or five-year-old and you will have a rest.

Tip #3:

Remember that the main “educator” of a child is your inner state, which you express with your thoughts, words and actions.

Therefore, there is no need to raise a child - you need to reveal yourself.

If a parent is in a resourceful state, charged and harmonious, it will be much easier for his child to overcome all crises.

Happy parents tend to have happy children. Recommendations don't work without Love. And Love begins with self-love.

The main disadvantage of children is that they grow up quickly. Therefore, while you have three-year-olds, rejoice, give them as much love and warmth as possible, thank them for being in your life.

The less seriousness and strain in a relationship, the less projection of one’s ambitions and desires onto the child, and the more love, awareness and care, the better.

Read more about love and awareness here.

If a child has a tantrum

The crisis of three years of age is often accompanied by such an unpleasant phenomenon as hysteria. A child can arrange it anywhere: in a store, on the street and even at home.

It is important for parents to know what to do in this situation:

Hysteria is a loss of contact with reality. The child falls into a state of passion and is unable to control his behavior. Therefore, do not try to scold him or demand that he stop behaving this way at this moment.
Before talking to your child, regulate your own emotional state. Take a deep breath, feel your feet firmly planted on the ground. Assess whether you are ready to help your child now.
If the tantrum happened outside the home, take the child to a quiet place. You can squat down next to the baby and hug him.
Speak to your child in a calm tone, without raising your voice. Don't judge or scold him. Just help him navigate what happened: “You're crying. You're upset that I didn't buy you a toy."
After the child is ready for dialogue, try to divert his attention to something pleasant.
Anticipate events. If you are sure that a child will definitely throw a tantrum in a toy store, it is better not to go there with him or agree in advance what you will buy him there.

Read a detailed interview with a psychologist A child throws tantrums: what should parents do?

Negative and difficult situations

During a crisis period in a child’s life, adults experience significant difficulties, especially in terms of finding contact, because a child demonstrating protest often behaves unexpectedly and unmotivated.

This is especially acute under unfavorable conditions of upbringing. At the same time, negativism and stubbornness are selective, i.e. manifest themselves purely in relation to the older generation from the inner circle and are almost never found among like-minded peers.

During this difficult period, the baby, regardless of gender, becomes difficult to educate compared to himself before, and also significantly reduces the rate of development.

Who is L.S. Vygotsky?

Lev Vygotsky is considered an outstanding Russian psychologist, the creator of cultural-historical theory .
The scientist made a real revolution in the field of defectology, and was also one of the first to pay attention to people with disabilities.

When the Western public got tired of the omnipresent Freud, it switched to “life according to Vygotsky.” The famous connoisseur of human souls became a truly cult figure after the translation of his powerful scientific work “Thinking and Speech” into foreign languages - English and Japanese.